1. Briggs, Asa, From Iron Bridge to Crystal Palace (London: Thames & Hudson, 1979); Asa Briggs, The Power of Steam (London: Michael Joseph, 1982).Google Scholar

2. Good surveys of the National Renaissance include Kočí, Josef, Naše národní obrození [Our National Renaissance] (Prague: Státní nakladatelství politické literatury, 1960); and Josef Petran et al., Počátky českého národního obrození: Spolecnost a kultura v 70. az 90. letech 18. století [The Beginnings of the Czech National Renaissance: society and culture from the 1770s to the 1790s] (Prague: Academia, 1990). On nineteenth-century industrialization and technological innovation during the Industrial Revolution, see Milan Hlávačka, Dějiny dopravy v cneských zemích v období průmyslové revoluce [The History of Transportation in the Czech Lands During the Industrial Revolution] (Prague: Academia, 1990); František Roubík, Z českých hospodářských dějin: Přehled vývoje Českého průmyslu, obchodu, měny a dopravy [Out of Czech Economic History: a survey of the development of Czech industry, trade, finance, and transportation] (Prague: 1948); Václav Vilikovský, Dějiny zemědělského průmyslu v Československu [A History of the Agricultural Industry in Czechoslovakia] (Prague: 1936); Richard Rudolph, Banking and Industrialization in Austria-Hungary: the role of banking in the industrialization of the Czech Crownlands, 1873-1914 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1976); and Pavla [Horská]-Vrbová, Hlavní otázky vzníků a vývoje českého strojirenství do roku 1918 [Some Principal Questions Regarding the Origins and Development of the Czech Machine Tool Industry Up to 1918] (Prague: ČsAV, 1959). On the seventeenth and eighteenth century technological foundations for nineteenth century innovations, see Luboš Nový et al., Dějiny techníky v Československu (Do konce 18. století) [Technical History in Czechoslovakia (To the End of the Eighteenth Century)] (Prague: Academia, 1974).Google Scholar

3. On the 1848 revolutions, see Breft, Miroslav and Mahler, Oldřich, Udalostí pražské v červně 1848 [The Events in Prague in June 1848] (Prague: Panorama, 1989); Karel Kazbunda, České hnutí roku 1848 [The Czech Movement in 1848] (Prague: Historicky … klub, 1929); Stanley Z. Pech, The Czech Revolution of 1848 (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1969); František Roubík, Česky rok 1848 [The Czech Year 1848] (Prague: Ladislav Kuncíř, 1931); and Josef Kolejka, Národy Habsburské monarchie v revoluce 1848-1849 [The Peoples of the Habsburg Monarchy in the Revolution of 1848-1849] (Prague: Svoboda, 1989).Google Scholar

4. Czech national conciousness and national traditions in mid-nineteenth century Czech arts and letters are discussed by 39 authors in Freimanová, Milena et al., Povědomi tradice v novodobě české kulture (Doba Bedřicha Smetany) [The Awareness of Tradition in Modern Czech Culture (The Age of Bedřich Smetana] (Prague: Národní galerie v Praze, 1988). The contributions most pertinent to this article are Valentin Urfus, “Stát v představách ceské národní společnosti smetanovského období,” pp. 22–28; Tomáš Vlček, “Orientalní motivy v kosmopolitním a národním programu lumírovské generace,” pp. 7-13, 177-187; Jiří Malíř, “Některé aspekty působení historické tradice v české společnosti 19. století,” pp. 319-324; Pavla Horská, “K některym dalším významům Národního povědomi tradice,” pp. 330-333; and Eduard Maur, “Poznámky k tradicí a mytu boje s odvěkým nepřítelem,” pp. 334-345.Google Scholar

5. Related political and, to a lesser extent, economic, developments are discussed by Garver, Bruce M., The Young Czech Party, 1874-1901, and the Emergence of a Multi-Party System (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1978); and, from a Marxist perspective, by Otto Urban, Česká Společnost: 1848-1918 [Czech Society 1848-1918] (Prague: Svoboda, 1982).Google Scholar

6. German nationalists, especially among the German intelligentsia, of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries erred in regarding nationality as something grown out of biological and material circumstances (Blut und Boden) rather than something chosen and cultivated, with choice strongly conditioned by cultural and historical circumstances.Google Scholar

7. Marx had little knowledge or understanding of the Czech National Renaissance or of Slavic history and grossly underestimated the extent of Czech, Slovak, and South Slavic national consciousness during the 1848 revolutions.Google Scholar

8. Emigration to the United States continued to be an option, albeit at a reduced rate after the Americans imposed immigration restrictions in the mid-1920s. See Bruce Garver, “Americans of Czech and Slovak ancestry in the history of Czechoslovakia,” Czechoslovak and Central European Journa, Winter 1993, 11: pp. 1–14.Google Scholar

9. The historical literature on T. G. Masaryk is enormous. Three recently published volumes are T. G. Masaryk, 1850-1937, Vol. I: Thinker and Politician, ed. Stanley B. Winters; Vol. II: Thinker and Critic, ed. Pynsent, Robert B.; and Vol. III: Statesman and Cultural Force, ed. Harry Hanak (London: Macmillan, 1990). On Masaryk in turn of the century Czech politics see Bruce Garver, “Masaryk and Czech politics, 1906-1914,” pp. 225–257, in Winters, Thinker and Politician; Roland Hoffmann, T. G. Masaryk und die tschechische Frage (Munich: Oldenbourg, 1988); and Jaroslav Opat, Filozof a politik T. G. Masaryk 1882-1893 [The Philosophy and Politics of T.G. Masaryk, 1882-1893] (Prague: Melantrich, 1990).Google Scholar

10. Barriers were primarily cultural and political in the nineteenth century and, with the advent of Communism and Nazism, increasingly political in the twentieth century.Google Scholar

11. Nový, Luboš, Folta, Jaroslav, Horský, Zdeněk, Teích, Mikuláš et al., Dějiny exaktních věd v českých zěmích do konce 19. století [The History of the Exact Science in the Czech Lands Up to the End of the Nineteenth Century] (Prague: ČsAV, 1961); and Jan Janko and Soňa Štrbáňová, Věda Purkyňovy doby [Science in the Purkyně Era] (Prague: Academia, 1988).Google Scholar

12. For a critical evaluation of German historians of science who have argued to the contrary, see Psotnicková, Jarmíla, Jan Evangelista Purkyně (Prague: Orbis, 1955), pp. 32–35.Google Scholar

13. A guide to manuscript and other archival sources on J. E. Purkyně is Beran, Jiří, ed., Soupis pramenů k životu a dílu Jana Evangelisty Purkyně ulozených v československých archivech [A List of Sources on the Life and Work of Jan Evangelista Purkyně to Be Found in Czechoslovak Archives] (Prague: Ustav čs. a svetových dějin ČsAV, 1987). Scholarly studies include Václav Začek, J. E. Purkyně (Prague: Melantrich, 1988); Jarmála Psotnicková, Jan Evangelista Purkyně (Prague: Orbis, 1955); Bohumil Němec and Otakar Matoušek et al., Jan Evangelista Purkyně, badatel a národní buditel: Soubor příspěvků o jého životě a práci [Jan Evangelista Purkyně: Scholar and National Awakener: a collection of articles about his life and work] (Prague: ČsAV, 1955); and Vladislav Kruta, ed., Jan Evangelista Purkyně: Příspevky k poznaní zráku ze subjektívního hledíska [Jan Evangelista Purkyně: contributions to the understanding of vision from a subjective point of view] (Brno: Universita J. E. Purkyně, 1969).Google Scholar

14. On J. Sachs and J. N. Czermak [Čermak], see Nový, Dějiny exaktních věd, pp. 179–186, 329; and Beran, Soupis pramenů, pp. 37, 40, 49, 116, 146. On E. Grégr's work in politics and fraternal associations see Garver, The Young Czech Party, passim. Google Scholar

15. On Palacký, see Zacek, Joseph, Palacký: The Historian as Scholar and Nationalist (The Hague: Mouton, 1970); Josef Fischer, Myšlenka a dílo Františka Palackého [The Thought and Work of František Palacký], 2 Vols. (Prague: Čin, 1926, 1927); Václav Rezníček, František Palacký: Jého život, působení a význam [František Palacký: his life, influence, and significance] 3rd edn (Prague: Josef R. Vilimek, 1912); and Bruce M. Garver, “Palacký and Czech Politics after 1876,” East European Quarterly, Spring 1981, 15(1): pp. 43–56.Google Scholar

16. For Masaryk's 9 January 1899 interpretation of this statement by Palacký, see Garver, Young Czech Party, pp. 264, 487.Google Scholar

17. On the origins and early development of the Society, see Prokeš, Jaroslav, Počátky české společnosti nauk do konce XVIII, století [The Beginnings of the Czech Society of Sciences Up to the End of the Eighteenth Century], Vol. I: 1774-1789 (Prague: Jubilejní fond Královské české společnosti nauk, 1938). On the National Museum, see Josef Hanuš, Národní Museum a naše obrození [The National Museum and Our National Renaissance], 2 Vols. (Prague: Národní Museum, 1921, 1923).Google Scholar

18. On civil liberties in modern Czech and Slovak history see Bruce Garver, “Lidská práva v československých dějinách” [Human rights in Czechoslovak history], pp. 193–213, in Pravnik: teoretický časopis pro otázky státu a práva [The Lawyer: a theoretical journal devoted to questions of the state and law] 131/3-4 (1992).Google Scholar

19. , Garver, Young Czech Party, pp. 10–11, 41–42, 91–94, discusses the establishment of this school system and its consequences.Google Scholar

20. See Šafránek, Jan, “Rozvoj českého školství” [The expansion of the Czech school system], pp. 1–67 in Durdík, Josef et al., Pamatník na oslavu padesatíletého panovníckého jubilea jého velicenstva císaře a krále Františka Josefa I: Vědecky a umělecký rozvoj v národě českém 1848-1898 [A Memorial Volume Celebrating the Fiftieth Jubilee of the Reign of His Highness the Emperor and King Franz Josef I: the scientific and artistic advancement of the Czech nation from 1848 to 1898] (Prague: Česká akademie císaře Františka Josefa pro vědy, slovesnost a umění, 1898).Google Scholar

21. On Gerstner, see Ringes, Vladimir, Století železnic [A Century of Railroads] (Prague: Karel Synek, 1938), pp. 15–20, and Miloslav Stepan, Prehlíadné dějiny českoslovneských železnic [A Concise History of Czechoslovak Railroads] (Prague: Dopravni nakladatelství, 1958), pp. 31–40. On the others, see Janko and Štrbáňová, Věda Purkyňovy doby, pp. 14–24, 35–39; and Nový et al., Dějiny exaktních věd, pp. 112-120, 208-214.Google Scholar

22. On the language issue at the Prague Polytechnical Institute, see Janko and Štrbáňová, Věda Purkyňovy doby, pp. 223–226.Google Scholar

23. Ibid., pp. 221–223.Google Scholar

24. On the Charles-Ferdinand University from the mid-eighteenth century until its division in 1882, see Kazbunda, Karel, Stolice dějin na pražské universitě: Od obnovení stolice dějin do rozdělení university (1746-1882) [The Chair of History at the University of Prague: from the restoration of the Chair of History to the division of the University (1746-1882)], 2 Vols. (Prague: Universita Karlová, 1965). His second volume, Doba jazykového utrakvismu, 1848-1882 [The Era of Conflict Over Language], addresses the language question and rapid growth in enrolment after 1860. On the 1882 division, see also H. Gordon Skilling, “The partition of the university in Prague,” Slavic and East European Review 1949, 27(69): pp. 430–449.Google Scholar

25. On the first Czech efforts to establish a Czech-language university in Brno, see František Derka and František Vahalík, Česká universita na Moravě: Časové otázky [The Czech University in Moravia: timely questions] (Prague: 1891); on Young Czech efforts in 1899, see Garver, Young Czech Party, pp. 258–260.Google Scholar

26. By way of contrast, professionalization and its influence on later nineteenth-century British society is thoroughly discussed by Perkin, Harold, The Rise of Professional Society: England since 1880 (London: Routledge, 1989).Google Scholar

27. On the Association of Czech Physicians, see Janko and Štrbáňová, Veda Purkyňovy doby, pp. 222, 254.Google Scholar

28. On the history of scientific journals, see ibid., pp. 221–222, 235ff.Google Scholar

29. In an article, “O vzniknuti časopisu Kroku i zaniknuti jeho,” for Živa in 1857, Purkyně discussed how he named Krok and why it was published irregularly. See Kruta, Purkyně: Přispěvky k poznaní zraku, pp. 104–107, and Janko and Štrbáňová, Věda Purkyňovy doby, pp. 107-111. Purkyně introduced the first issue of Krok 1/1 (1821) as follows (the author's translation): “Like every person left to his own resources, so must each individual nation conduct and educate itself according to its character and nature in order to fulfill its destiny, including the maintenance of its fame and good reputation …. By his origins, development, and dress, the Czech belongs to the Slavic peoples. Even in scientific circles he must identify himself with fellow Slavs. Among Slavs, the Czech is able to be a Czech; in German circles, he will always come last…” [“Gako každý člowek sám o sobě, tak i každý ob zwláštnj národ musj dle swé powahy, dle swé přirozenosti se chowáti a wzděláwati, gestliže swého půwodnjho určenj dogjti a mezi ostatnjmi swé mjsto slawně a statně držeti ma …. Čechůw kmen gest rod Slowanů; tamt geho půwod, geho wzrůst a okrása; Slowanskými dobami gest mu pohybowati sew okresu naučném. Mezi Slowany můze Čech Čechem býti, w Germansku wždy na sledu poslednym …”].Google Scholar

30. Živa promoted the “popularization and dissemination of scientific knowledge” [popularizace a šiření vědeckých poznátku]. Psotnicková, Jarmila, Jan Evangelista Purkyně (Prague: Orbis, 1955), pp. 37–38; and Janko and Štrbáňová, Věda Purkyňovy doby, pp. 240-243.Google Scholar

31. , Similarly, Czech cultivation of the arts and letters required the development of informed mass audiences. During the National Renaissance, music and theatre especially had proven to be very effective means of teaching Czech history and stimulating national consciousness.Google Scholar

32. On Karel Purkyně's art, the most thorough study remains Volavka, Vojtech, Karel Purkyně: U:vodní studie [Karel Purkyně: an introductory study] (Prague: Melantrich, 1942). On Cyril Purkyně, see Naše věda [Our science], 1937,18: pp. 238–239.Google Scholar

33. The most informative memoirs of the Purkyně family are by Pokorná-Purkyňová, Růžena, Život tři generaci: Vzpomínky na velké Purkyně, Listy a články maliře Karla Purkyně [The Life of Three Generations: memories of the great Purkyně (and) letters and articles of the artist Karel Purkyně] (Prague: Výtvarný odbor Umělecké besedy, 1944). The author was the daughter of Karel, sister of Cyril, and granddaughter of Jan Evangelista.Google Scholar

34. František Tilšer's extant correspondence and selected publications may be found in the pozůstalost Františka Tilšra in the Central Archive of the Czech Academy of Arts and Sciences.Google Scholar

35. Tilšer, František, Soustava deskriptívní geometrie [A System of Descriptive Geometry] (Prague: Ed. Grégr, 1870).Google Scholar

36. The only biography is the short and objective study by Mikulásek, Artus, Dr. Techn. Frant. Tilser, učenec, politík a vychovatel [Dr of Technology František Tilšer: scholar, politician, and teacher] (Brno: Moravský Legionář, 1934); for necrology, see Samostatnost: Neodvislý denník, 3/36 (6 February 1913): pp. 1–2.Google Scholar

37. František Tilšer, Ve službě panstva: Přispevěk k historii české politiky za doby převahy zástupců slechty konservativní nad národmí poslanci v C;AKeském klubu na radě řísšké [In the Service of the Nobility: a contribution to the history of Czech politics during the time of the predominance of the representatives of the conservative nobility over the (Czech) national delegates in the Czech club of the Reichsrat] (Český Brod: 1885); Frantisek Tilser, Pravda o vyrovnání: Vénavano všem poctivým C;AKechům [The truth about the compromise: dedicated to all honest Czechs] (Prague: 1890). I discuss these works in Garver, Young Czech Party, pp. 80, 127-128, 133-134, 530.Google Scholar

38. František Tilšer, O přicinacy nynějšího myšlenkového a společenského rozvratu a prostředcích k jého překonání (Prague: Edv. Grégr, 1900), was translated by J. Hantich as La crise intellectuelle et sociale du temps present, ses causes et les môyens de la conjurer (Prague: 1902). Tilšerís studies of Komenský appeared in pamphlet form, Učitel národu Jan Amos Komenský [The Teacher of His Nation: Jan Amos Komenský (Comenius)] (Prague: Fr. Řivnáč, 1906), and Na oslavu 315. výročí narozenin J. A. Komenského [In Celebration of the 315th Anniversary of the Birth of J. A. Komenský (Comenius)] (Prague: Fr. Řivnáč, 1907).Google Scholar

39. Tilšer, František, Jedině pravá cesta k panharmonii lidstva zabezpečena pro vždy ikonognosii (Prague: Fr. Řivnáč, 1908), 138ff.; and Josef Jeřabek, “Tilšerová cesta k panharmonii lidstva,” Čas, 89 (2 April 1913), 5-6; 103 (16 April 1913), 6.Google Scholar

40. Tilšer, František, Kdo hlása pravdu: Kant či Lamarck a Monge? (Prague: Č.akademie c.F.J., 1901); 2nd edn (Prague: Fr. Řivnáč, 1907).Google Scholar

41. The most recent biography of Hlávka is Lodr, Alois, Josef Hlávka: Český architekt, stavitel a mecenáš [Josef Hlávka: Czech Architect, Builder and Philanthropist] (Prague: Melantrich, 1988). Good older works are Bedrich Mansfeld, Josef Hlávka (Prague: 1925); and Jiří Stibral, Josef Hlávka (Prague: 1934).Google Scholar

42. , Lodr, Josef Hlávka, pp. 22–87 and unnumbered illustrations.Google Scholar

43. Špelda, Antonín and Viktora, Viktor, Zámek Lužaný hudba a literatura [Lužany Castle: Music and Literature] (Plzeň: Zapadočeské nakl. pro Hlávkovu nadaci, 1976).Google Scholar

44. Beran, Jiří, Šolle, Zdeněk, Smahel, František et al., Sto let České akademie věd a umění [One-Hundred Years of the Czech Academy of Arts and Sciences] (Prague: ástřední archiv Čs. akademie věd, 1991), includes statements from 1890 to 1891 by Eduard Albert and Josef Durdík and an essay by Jiří Beran, “Sto let od slavnostního zahajení činnosti České akademie věd a umění,” pp. 7–24.Google Scholar

45. I have discussed these topics at length in ch. 5 through 9 of The Young Czech Party, pp. 121–276.Google Scholar

46. The best scholarly study of the Jubilee Exposition is Hlavačka, Milan, Jubilejní výstava 1891 [Jubilee Exposition 1891] (Prague: Techkom, 1991). See also Jan Halada and Petr Réhoř, Průvodce výstavou, 15.5.-28.10.1991, současnou a minulou [A Guide to the Exposition, 15 May to 28 October 1991: present and past] (Prague: Iris, 1991). The new electrical industry so prominently featured at this Exposition is discussed by Pavla Horská-Vrbová, Počatky elektrisace v českých zemích [The Beginnings of Electrification in the Czech Lands] (Prague: ČsAV, 1961). On the Ethnographic Exhibition attended by 2,065,285 people, see Jan Herben's articles in Čas, 26 October, 21 December, and 28 December 1891, pp. 677–678, 808-609, 829-832 respectively; and Antonín Čízek's article, “Po národopisné výstave” [On the Ethnographic Exhibition], in Radikální listy, 1895 2(30). On the French connection with both expositions and on Czech-French cultural relations at the turn of the century, see the text in French by Pavla Horská, Prague-Paris (Prague: Orbis, 1990).Google Scholar

47. On these artistic developments at length, see Bruce Garver, “Czech cubism and fin-de-siècle Prague,” pp. 91–104, in Austrian History Yearbook, 1983-1984, 19–20(1). More detailed and more recent studies of secese and cubism by Czech art historians include: Benešová, Marie, Česká architektura v proměnach dvou století [Czech Architecture Through the Transformations of Two Centuries] (Prague: Státní pedagogické nakladatelství, 1984); Jiří Kotalík et al., Tschechische Kunst, 1878-1914: Auf dem Weg in die Moderne (Darmstadt: Roetherdruck, 1984); Josef Pechar and Petr Urlich, Programy České architektury [The Program of Czech Architecture] (Prague: Odeon, 1981), part 1: “Smery na pocátku dvacatého stoleti;” and Tomáš Vlček, Prague 1900: Studie k dějinam kultury a umění Prahy v letech 1890-1914 [A Study of the Cultural History and Art of Prague from 1890 to 1914] (Prague: Panorama, 1986).Google Scholar

48. Durdík et al, Pamatník na oslavu padesatiletého panovnického jubilea jeho velicenstva císaře a krále Františka Josefa I.Google Scholar

49. These five political parties—the Agrarians, the National Socialists, the Progressives (Realists), the Radical Progressives, and the State Rights Radicals—are discussed at length in Garver, The Young Czech Party, pp. 288–308.Google Scholar

50. On the non-historical styles of Czech architecture, notably secese and cubism, see Benešová, Česká architektura, pp. 208–290; and Zdeněk Wirth, Josef Gočár (Geneva: “Les Maîtres de l'Architecture,” 1930).Google Scholar

51. Additional information on the work of Jan Evangelista Purkyné and his pupils and successors may be found in Durdík et al., Pamatník na oslavu padesatílehého panovnického jubilea jého velicenstva císaře a krále Františka Josefa I, in the section “Vědy lekarské,” 131 pp. especially the sub-sections “Anatomie, histologie a embryologie” and “Fysiologie.”Google Scholar