The prospect of game-farming or game-cropping is very much in the news in parts of Africa to-day, as a means of conserving wild life and at the same time managing it so as to provide a supply of meat and other animal products. It is, therefore, very interesting to see how the Russians have succeeded in rescuing from extermination an animal only recently in grave danger of becoming extinct, and in converting it, in the space of a few years, into a major national resource. The animal at the centre of this exciting and encouraging story is the saiga, a small steppe antelope (Saiga tatarica). Sometimes called the big-nosed saiga, this antelope is found only in the U.S.S.R. It has a body length of 120 to 135 cm., stands 75 to 80 cm. at the shoulder, and weighs 40 to 45 kg. Its natural habitat is the steppe, an environment eminently suitable for a population of social ungulates.

Asia’s rangelands and mountains are strongholds for several endemic ungulate species. Little is known about the ecology of these species because of the region’s remoteness and the lack of robust scientific studies. Hunting, habitat modification, increased livestock grazing, disease and development are the major threats to the species. There is an urgent need for better monitoring to identify the size, distribution and dynamics of the populations of these species, and the threats to them, for effective conservation. The feasibility of standard scientific monitoring is greatly influenced by the remoteness of the region, the pre-existing scientific ideology, lack of expertise in the latest monitoring methods and awareness of biases and errors, and low capacity and logistical and financial constraints. We review the existing methods used for monitoring ungulates, identify the practical and institutional challenges to effective monitoring in Central Asia and categorize the methods based on various criteria so that researchers can plan better monitoring studies suited to particular species. We illustrate these issues using examples from several contrasting ungulate species. We recommend that scientific surveys should be complemented by increases in participatory monitoring, involving local people. The future of ungulate monitoring in Central Asia lies in a better recognition of the existing errors and biases in monitoring programmes and methods, allocation of more monitoring effort in terms of manpower, finances and logistics, understanding of robust scientific methods and sampling theory, and changing the scientific culture, as well as a commitment to ensuring that we monitor the things that matter.

We analysed the mtDNA control region (HV1) of 93 tissue samples from all five populations of the saiga antelope Saiga tatarica. The results show a slight but clear distinction between S. t. mongolica and S. t. tatarica, supporting the current designation of S. t. mongolica as a subspecies rather than a separate species. Levels of genetic diversity were low in S. t. mongolica, consistent with the small size of its population and long isolation. Although populations of S. t. tatarica have reasonable levels of genetic diversity, their conservation status is perilous. The Kalmykian and Kazakhstan samples each contained unique haplotypes, although the species as a whole appears polyphyletic, consistent with recent fragmentation and rapid population decline. An understanding of the population genetics of this species is an essential prerequisite for conservation action.

In 1994 and 1995 the authors studied Mongolian gazelle Procapra gutturosa populations in Inner Mongolia, China, conducting interviews and making field observations in eight counties along the national boundary between Mongolia and China. Mongolian gazelle distribution was estimated to cover approximately 73, 152 sq km, which was only 25.2 per cent of that in 1950–70. The adult malefemale sex ratio was 1: 4, and the average herd size 923.3 individuals in November/December 1994 and 23.1 in March/April 1995. The gazelles regularly migrate from Mongolia into China from October onwards and return to Mongolia in late February. Hunting is a major threat to the survival of the species.

Professor Bannikov describes how the USSR has created nature reserves to protect individual rare species so that today all endangered mammals are protected in reserves or sanctuaries; several rare species have been greatly increased in numbers and reintroduced in other areas. The article is the talk Professor Bannikov, who is a Vice-President of the FPS, gave at the Society's Annual General Meeting on July 5 in London.

This article presents data on the ecology, exploitation and management of the Mongolian gazelle over the last few decades. The species has suffered a massive decline in its range area, coinciding with the construction of the Ulaanbaatar—Beijing railway in the 1950s. It is heavily hunted, both legally and illegally. Threats to the species are outlined and recommendations made about the conservation measures required to secure its future.

In September 2007 unusual precipitation patterns created conditions in the eastern steppe of Mongolia (drought conditions in many places and wet conditions in one area) that led to the observation of a historically large Mongolian gazelle Procapra gutturosa herd (> 200,000). A model developed to predict gazelle occurrence based on satellite imagery of vegetation productivity correctly identified the region where the mega-herd was located. Additionally, few gazelles were observed in large portions of adjacent, suitable habitat that either had intense insect activity or were undergoing intensive oil development. Because Mongolian gazelles appear to undertake long-distance nomadic movements to cope with a highly variable environment and food availability, development activities that discourage use of limited suitable habitat may ultimately reduce gazelle fecundity or increase mortality. Landscape level conservation strategies that prevent habitat loss and allow access to all of the grasslands seem preferable to strategies that focus on enhancing a handful of protected areas.

Despite a ≥75% reduction in the geographic range of Mongolian gazelles Procapra gutturosa over the past 50 years, the species is still recognized as the most numerous large grassland herbivore in Asia. Its actual population size, however, is still disputed, and we therefore estimated its numbers in an 80,000 km2 area in the eastern steppe of Mongolia by driving long-distance (1,200–1,400 km) transect surveys during spring and autumn 2000–2002. Quantitative estimates of gazelle numbers are essential for understanding the causes of changes in the population, and thus devising conservation strategies to assure its long-term viability. Observed herds ranged in size from 1–4,000; among surveys, median herd sizes varied from 14–42. Density estimates varied from 10.7 gazelles km−2 in spring to 11.5 gazelles km−2 in autumn, with total population estimates of 803,820 (483,790–1,330,100 95% confidence interval) and 870,625 (499,432–1,491,278 95% confidence interval), respectively. Confidence limits were wide, and to obtain a coefficient of variation of 20%, transect lengths would need to be extended three- to four-fold. Until more efficient means for conducting population surveys can be implemented, driving long-distance transects, combined with distance analysis, seem to provide the best quantitative estimate of Mongolian gazelle populations.

The saiga antelope is exploited principally for its horn. Two major factors will influence the manager's decision about the best sustainable hunting strategy for the saiga: the climatic unpredictability of the region in which it lives and the effects of highly selective hunting for males on the population dynamics of the species. This paper discusses these factors and assesses the prospects for sustainable management of the saiga.

The global population of saiga Saiga tatarica, categorized as Critically Endangered on the IUCN Red List, declined by > 95% at the end of the 20th century, resulting in several conservation initiatives to protect the species. Previously used methods to monitor population trends were inadequate to assess numbers of saiga properly. We report findings from the first survey for Mongolian saiga S. tatarica mongolica to utilize statistically rigorous methodology, using line transect distance sampling in 2006 and 2007 to obtain population estimates in and around the Sharga Nature Reserve, the southern part of the species' current range. We estimate a density of 0.54 and 0.78 saiga km-2 in 2006 and 2007, respectively. Our best models suggest that 4,938 (95% confidence interval, CI = 2,762–8,828) saiga occupied the 4,524-km2 study area in 2006 and 7,221 (95% CI = 4,380–11,903) occupied the 4,678-km2 study area in 2007. Although these estimates, with their large confidence intervals, preclude an assessment of the impacts of conservation initiatives on population trends, they suggest that the Mongolian saiga population is larger than previous reports based on minimum counts, and adequate to support in situ population recovery. Modifications to the survey protocol hold promise for improving the precision of future estimates. Distance sampling may be a useful, scientifically defensible method for monitoring saiga population trends and assessing the effectiveness of conservation efforts to stabilize and recover populations.

From earliest times man has taken an interest in animals, but our ancestors were mainly concerned with hunting them. The oldest documents dealing with hunting laws date from the eleventh century. In Russia hunting was never a privilege, the prerogative of princes or state, but the state was always concerned with the products of the chase. One of the first reserves was made in the seventeenth century to protect the eyries of the gyr falcon, much in demand for falconry. An early government monopoly in fur trading guaranteed some measure of protection for fur-bearing animals.

We present new data on the size of all the saiga antelope populations; three populations of the subspecies Saiga tatarica tatarica in Kazakhstan, one of S. t. tatarica in Kalmykia, Russia, and two of S. t. mongolica in Mongolia. The data suggest that three populations are under severe threat from poaching and have been declining at an increasing rate for the last 2–3 years. The Ustiurt population in Kazakhstan was relatively secure but is now also under threat. There is evidence of much reduced conception rates in Kalmykia, probably because of selective hunting of adult males. The Mongolian subspecies shows no evidence of recent decline, but is of concern because of the population's small size. The cause of the population declines appears to be poaching for meat and horns, which is a result of economic collapse in the rural areas of Kazakhstan and Kalmykia. We suggest that full aerial surveys be carried out on the Betpak-dala (Kazakhstan) and Mongolian populations, and that funding is urgently required for the control of poaching in all parts of the saiga range.

The African continent is so productive it could have doubled the world's meat production today if there had been proper wildlife management over the last fifty years. But European man has brought the wild animals to the verge of extinction for the sake of his own unsuitable domestic animals, notably the cow. Today there are signs of change, with farmers looking to the ranching of wild animals, and national parks selling meat from animals that have to be culled. But time is short. The increasing human population is leading rapidly to the complete disappearance of wildlife outside national parks, and the author believes that today every large mammal species is in danger. The only hope for wildlife lies in its utilisation, and the implications of this will be the subject of a second article in the next Oryx.