Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-jkksz Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-21T11:42:34.885Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Sámi traditional ecological knowledge as a guide to science: snow, ice and reindeer pasture facing climate change

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  23 December 2010

Jan Åge Riseth ,
Hans Tømmervik ,
Elina Helander-Renvall ,
Niklas Labba ,
Cecilia Johansson ,
Eirik Malnes ,
Jarle W. Bjerke ,
Christer Jonsson ,
Veijo Pohjola  and
Lars-Erik Sarri
...Show all authors
Jan Åge Riseth
Affiliation:
Norut Tromsø and Sámi University College, P.O. Box 250, N-8504 Narvik, Norway (janar@norut.no)
Hans Tømmervik
Affiliation:
Norwegian Institute for Nature Research, N-9296 Tromsø, Norway
Elina Helander-Renvall
Affiliation:
Arctic Indigenous Peoples and Sámi Research Office, Arctic Centre, University of Lapland, FIN-96101 Rovaniemi, Finland
Niklas Labba
Affiliation:
Moskavuona Sámi Language and Culture Centre, N-9042 Laksvatn, Norway
Cecilia Johansson
Affiliation:
Department of Earth Sciences, Uppsala University, S-75236 Uppsala, Sweden
Eirik Malnes
Affiliation:
Norut Northern Research Institute, N-9294 Tromsø, Norway
Jarle W. Bjerke
Affiliation:
Norwegian Institute for Nature Research, N-9296 Tromsø, Norway
Christer Jonsson
Affiliation:
Abisko Scientific Research Station, S-98107 Abisko, Sweden
Veijo Pohjola
Affiliation:
Department of Earth Sciences, Uppsala University, S-75236 Uppsala, Sweden
Lars-Erik Sarri
Affiliation:
Esrange, Swedish Space Corporation, S-98128 Kiruna, Sweden
Audhild Schanche
Affiliation:
Sámi Parliament, N-9730 Karasjok, Norway
Terry V. Callaghan
Affiliation:
Abisko Scientific Research Station, S-98107 Abisko, Sweden and Department of Animal and Plant Sciences, University of Sheffield, S10 2TN
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Scientific studies of challenges of climate change could be improved by including other sources of knowledge, such as traditional ecological knowledge (TEK), in this case relating to the Sámi. This study focuses on local variations in snow and ice conditions, effects of the first durable snow, and long term changes in snow and ice conditions as pre-requisites for understanding potential future changes. Firstly, we characterised snow types and profiles based on Sámi categories and measured their density and hardness. Regression analysis showed that density can explain much of the variation in hardness, while snow depth was not significantly correlated with hardness. Secondly, we found that whether it is dry/cold or warm/wet around the fall of the first durable snow is, according to Sámi reindeer herders, crucial information for forecasting winter grazing conditions, but this has had limited focus within science. Thirdly, elderly herders’ observations of changes in snow and ice conditions by ‘reading nature’ can aid reinterpretation of meteorological data by introducing researchers to alternative perspectives. In conclusion we found remarkable agreement between scientific measurements and Sámi terminology. We also learnt that TEK/science cooperation has much potential for climate change studies, though time and resources are needed to bridge the gap between knowledge systems. In particular, TEK attention to shifts in nature can be a useful guide for science.

Type
Research Article
Information
Polar Record , Volume 47 , Issue 3 , July 2011 , pp. 202 - 217
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2010

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Aanes, R., Sæther, B.E., and Øritsland, N.A.. 2000. Fluctuations of an introduced population of Svalbard reindeer: the effects of density dependence and climatic variation. Ecography 23: 437–443.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
ACIA (Arctic Climate Impact Assessment). 2005. Arctic Climate Impact Assessment 2005. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Åkerman, H.J., and Johansson, M.. 2008. Thawing permafrost and deepening active layer in sub-Arctic Sweden. Lund: Lund University, Department of Physical Geography and Ecosystem Analyses (available from M. Johansson, Department of Physical Geography and Ecosystem Analyses, Lund University, Sölvegatan 12, 223 62 Lund, Sweden).Google Scholar
Alexanderson, H., and Eriksson, B.. 1989. Climate fluctuations in Sweden 1860–1987. Reports of Meteorology and Climatology 58: 1–55 (Stockholm: Swedish Meteorological and Hydrological Institute).Google Scholar
Basso, K.H. 1996. Wisdom sits in places. Landscape and language among the Western Apache. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press.Google Scholar
Berkes, F., Folke, C., and Gadgil, M.. 1993. Traditional ecological knowledge, biodiversity, resilience and sustainability. Stockholm: The Royal Swedish Academy, Beijer International Institute of Ecological Economics (Beijer discussion papers series 31).Google Scholar
Berkes, F. 2008. Sacred ecology (2nd edition). New York: Routledge.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bokhorst, S.F., Bjerke, J.W., Bowles, F.W., Mellillo, J., Callaghan, T.V., and Phoenix, G.K.. 2008. Impacts of extreme winter warming in the sub-Arctic: growing season responses of dwarf-shrub heath land. Global Change Biology 14: 2603–2612.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bokhorst, S.F., Bjerke, J.W., Tømmervik, H., Callaghan, T.V., and Phoenix, G.K.. 2009. Winter warming events damage sub-Arctic vegetation: consistent evidence from an experimental manipulation and a natural event. Journal of Ecology 97: 1408–1415.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Callaghan, T.V., Johansson, M., Heal, O.W., Sælthun, N.R., Barkved, L.J., Bayfield, N., Brandt, O., Brooker, R., Christiansen, H.H., Forchhammer, M., Høye, T.T., Humlum, O., Järvinen, A., Jonasson, C., Kohler, J., Magnusson, B., Meltofte, H., Mortensen, L., Neuvonen, S., Pearce, I., Rasch, M., Turner, B., Hasholt, B., Huhta, E., Leskinen, E., Nielsen, N., and Siikamäki, P.. 2004. Environmental changes in the North Atlantic region: SCANNET as a collaborative approach for documenting, understanding and predicting changes. Ambio 13: 39–50 (special report).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Callaghan, T.V. (editor). 2004. Climate change and UV-B impacts on arctic tundra and polar desert ecosystems. Ambio 33: 385–479.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Callaghan, T.V., Bergholm, F., Christensen, T.R., Jonasson, C., Kokfelt, U., and Johansson, M.. 2010. A new climate era in the sub-Arctic: accelerating climate changes and multiple impacts. Geophysical Research Letters. 37, L14705, doi:10.1029/2009GL042064, 2010.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Christensen, T.R., Johansson, T., Åkerman, H.J., Mastepanov, M., Malmer, N., Almer, N., Friborg, T., Riborg, T., Crill, P., and Svensson, B.H.. 2004. Thawing sub-arctic permafrost: Effects on vegetation and methane emissions. Geophysical Research Letters 31: L04501.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Colbeck, S., Akitaya, E., Armstrong, R., Gubler, H., Lafeuille, J., Lied, K., McClung, D., and Morris, E.. 1998. The international classification for seasonal snow on the ground. Springfield, Virginia: The International Commission on Snow and Ice of the International Association of Scientific Hydrology and the International Glaciological Society.Google Scholar
Collins, W.B., and Smith, T.S.. 1991. Effects of wind-hardened snow on foraging by reindeer (Rangifer tarandus). Arctic 44: 217–222.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Danell, Ö. 2005. Renskötselns robusthet-behov av nytt synsätt för att tydliggöra rennäringens förutsättningar och hållbarhet i dess socioekologiska sammanhang [Robustness of reindeer management – a need for a new approach to clarify the premises and sustainabilty of reindeer management in its socio-ecological context]. Rangifer Report 10: 39–49.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eira, N.I. 1984. Boazobargi giela (The working language in reindeer management). Die đut 1984: 1.Google Scholar
Eira, N.I. 1994. The role of traditional knowledge in modern reindeer husbandry. In: Hansen, B.V. (editor). Arctic environment: report on the seminar on integration of indigenous peoples knowledge. Reykjavik: Ministry for the Environment (Iceland); Copenhagen: Greenland Home Rule Government; Copenhagen: Ministry for the Environment: 130–134.Google Scholar
Eriksson, O. 1976. Snöförhållandenas inverkan på renbetningen [The influence of snow conditions on reindeer pasturing]. Uppsala: Uppsala University (Meddelanden från Växtbiologiska Institutionen 2): 1–19 (report).Google Scholar
Fancy, S.G., and White, R.G.. 1985. Energy expenditures while cratering in snow. Journal of Wildlife Management 49: 987–993.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Forbes, B.C., Bölter, M., Müller-Wille, L., Hukkinen, J., Müller, F., Gunslay, N., and Konstantinov (editors), Y.. 2006. Reindeer management in northernmost Europe: linking practical and scientific knowledge in social-ecological systems. Berlin: Springer Verlag (Ecological Studies 184).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gearheard, S., Pocernich, M., Stewart, R., Sanguya, J., and Huntington, H.P.. 2009. Linking Inuit knowledge and meteorological station observations to understand changing wind patterns at Clyde River, Nunavut. Climatic Change. DOI 10.1007/s10584-009-9587-1. (published online 23 June 2009).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Heggberget, T.M., Gaare, E., and Ball, J.P.. 2002. Reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) and climate change: importance of winter forage. Rangifer 22: 13–32.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Heikkilä, L. 2006. Comparison of indigenous and scientific perceptions of reindeer management. In: Forbes, B.C., Bölter, M., Müller-Wille, L., Hukkinen, J., Müller, F., Gunslay, N., and Konstantinov, Y. (editors). Reindeer management in northernmost Europe: linking practical and scientific knowledge in social-ecological systems. Berlin: Springer (Ecological Studies 184): 73–94.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Helander, E., and Mustonen, T. (editors). 2004. Snowscapes, dreamscapes. Snow change book on community voices of change. Tampere: Tampere Polytechnic Publications.Google Scholar
Helander-Renvall, E.M. 2007. Traditional ecological knowledge, snow and Sámi reindeer herding. Arctic Reports 48/2007: 87–99 (Knowledge and power in the Arctic. Conference proceedings).Google Scholar
Helle, T. 1980. Laiduntilanteen muutokset ja riskinotto porotaloudessa [Changes in the state of grazing areas and risk taking in Finnish reindeer management]. (English summary). Lapin tutkimusseura. Vuosikirja [Lapland Research Society Yearbook] 21: 13–21.Google Scholar
Helle, T., and Kojola, I.. 2008. Demographics in an alpine reindeer herd: effects of density and winter weather. Ecography 31: 221–230.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Helle, T., and Säntii, V.. 1982. Vinterkatastrofer inom renskötseln i Finland: förluster och deras forebyggande [Winter catastrophies in reindeer husbandry in Finland: losses and their prevention]. Rangifer 2: 2–8.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hobson, G. 1992. Traditional knowledge is science. Northern Perspectives 20:1.Google Scholar
Hornborg, A. 1996. Ecology as semiotics: outlines of contextualist paradigm for human ecology. In: Descolla, P., and Palsson, G. (editors). Nature and society: anthropological perspectives. London: Routledge: 45–62.Google Scholar
Huntington, H. 2006. Who are the ‘Authors’ when traditional knowledge is documented? Arctic 59: 3–4.Google Scholar
Huntington, H., Callaghan, T.V., Fox, S.H., and Krupnik, I.. 2004. Matching traditional and scientific observations to detect environmental change: a discussion on arctic terrestrial ecosystems. Ambio 13: 18–23 (special report).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Itkonen, T. 1948. Suomen lappalaiset vuoteen 1945 [Finnish Sámi before 1945]. Osa II [Vol 2]. Porvoo, Helsinki, Juva: Werner Söderström Osakeyhtiö.Google Scholar
Jernsletten, N. 1997. Sami traditional terminology: professional terms concerning salmon, reindeer and snow. In: Gaski, H. (editor). Sami culture in a new era. The Norwegian Sami experience. Karasjok: Davvi Girji OS: 86–108.Google Scholar
Johannes, R.E. 1993. Integrating traditional ecological knowledge and management with environment impact assessment. In: Inglis, J.T. (editor). Traditional ecological knowledge. Concepts and cases. Ottawa: International Development Research Centre: 33–41.Google Scholar
Karlsen, S.R., Tolvanen, A., Kubin, E., Poikolainen, J., Høgda, K.A., Johansen, B., Danks, F.S., Aspholm, P., Wielgolaski, F.E., and Makarova, O.. 2008. MODIS-NDVI-based mapping of the length of the growing season in northern Fennoscandia. International Journal of Applied Earth Observation and Geoinformation 10: 253–266.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kohler, J., and Aanes, R.. 2004. Effect of winter snow and ground-icing on a Svalbard reindeer population: results of a simple snowpack model. Arctic, Antarctic, and Alpine Research 36: 333–341.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kohler, J., Brandt, O., Johansson, M., and Callaghan, T.V.. 2006. A long record of arctic snow-depth measurements from Abisko, Northern Sweden, 1913–2002. Polar Research 25: 91–113.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kumpula, J., and Colpaert, A.. 2003. Effects of weather and snow conditions on reproduction and survival of semi-domesticated reindeer (R. t. tarandus). Polar Research 22: 225–233.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kumpula, J., and Colpaert, A.. 2007. Snow conditions and usability value of pastureland for semi-domesticated reindeer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus) in northern boreal forest area. Rangifer 27: 25–39.Google Scholar
Krupnik, I., Huntington, H., Koonooka, C., and Noongwook, G. (editors). 2004. Watching ice and weather our way. Savoonga, Alaska and Washington, DC: Arctic Studies Center, Smithsonian Institution and Savoonga Whaling Captains Association.Google Scholar
Kumpula, J., Lefrere, S.C., and Nieminen, M.. 2004. The use of woodland lichen pasture by reindeer in winter with easy snow conditions. Arctic 57: 273–278.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kumpula, J., Parikka, P., and Nieminen, M.. 2000. Occurrence of certain microfungi on reindeer pastures in northern Finland during winter 1996–97. Rangifer 20: 3–8.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lévi-Strauss, C. 1966. The savage mind. Chicago, University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Lundqvist, H. 2009. Preconditions for the reindeer husbandry in a progressing climate change. In: Abstracts of the 15th Nordic Conference on Reindeer and Reindeer Husbandry Research. Rangifer 13: 60 (report).Google Scholar
Magga, O.H., 2006. Diversity in Saami terminology for reindeer snow and ice. International Journal of Social Science 58: 25–34.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McClung, D., and Shaerer, P..1993. The avalanche handbook. Seattle, WA: The Mountaineers.Google Scholar
Moen, J., 2008. Climate change: effects on the ecological basis for reindeer husbandry in Sweden. Ambio 37: 304–311.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nellemann, C. 1996. Terrain selection by reindeer in late winter. Arctic 49: 339–347.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nellemann, C., Jordhøy, P., Støen, O.G., and Strand, O.. 2000. Cumulative impacts of tourist resorts on wild reindeer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus) during winter. Arctic 53: 9–17.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nielsen, K., and Nesheim, A.. 1979. Lappisk (samisk) ordbok. [Sámi dictionary]. 2nd edition. Oslo: Aschehoug.Google Scholar
Nutti, Y.J. 2007. Matematisk tankesätt innom den samiska kulturen. Utifrå samiska slöjdares och renskötares berättelser. [Mathematical thinking in the Sámi culture. Based on the accounts of Sámi craftsmen and reindeer herders]. Unpublished licenciate dissertation. Luleå, Sweden: Luleå University of Technology, Department of Education.Google Scholar
Oksanen, A. 2001. Reindeer feeding and health. In: Abstracts of lectures presented at the 11th Nordic Conference on Reindeer Research. Rangifer 5: 22 (report).Google Scholar
Østbye, E., and Mysterud, I.. 1984. Håndbok i snømåling. Forslag til prosedyre i økologiske undersøkelser [Snow measurement manual. Proposed procedures in ecological investigations]. Oslo: Bionor.Google Scholar
Pruitt, W.O. 1959. Snow as a factor in the winter ecology of barren ground caribou (Rangifer arcticus). Arctic 12: 159–179.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pruitt, W.O. 1979. A numerical ‘snow index’ for reindeer (Rangifer tarandus) winter ecology (Mammalia, Cervidae). Annales Zoologici Fennici 16: 271–280.Google Scholar
Pruitt, W.O. 1984. Snow and living things. In: Olson, R., Hastings, R.Geddes, F. (editors). Northern ecology and resource management: Memorial essays honouring Don Gil. Edmonton: The University of Alberta Press: 51–77.Google Scholar
Pruitt, W.O. 2005. Why and how to study a snow cover. Canadian Field-Naturalist 119 (1): 118–128.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Putkonen, J., and Roe, G.. 2003. Rain-on-snow events impact soil temperature and affect ungulate survival. Geophysical Research Letters 30: 1188.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Redman, C.L. 1999. Human impact on ancient environments. Tucson: University of Arizona Press.Google Scholar
Rehbinder, C., and Nikander, S.. 1999. Ren och rensjukdomar [Reindeer and reindeer diseases]. Lund: Studentlitteratur.Google Scholar
Reimers, E. 1982. Winter mortality and population trends of reindeer on Svalbard, Norway. Arctic and Alpine Research 14: 295–300.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Reinert, E., Aslaksen, I., Eira, I.M.G., Mathiesen, S.D., Reinert, H., and Turi, E.I.. 2009. Adapting to climate change in Sámi reindeer herding: the nation state as problem and solution. In: Agder, W.N., Lorenzoni, I., and O'Brien, K. (editors). Adapting to climate change. Thresholds, values, governance. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press: 417–432.Google Scholar
Riseth, J.Å., and Oksanen, L.. 2007. Ressursøkonomiske og økologiske perspektiver på grenseoverskridende reindrift [Resource-economic and ecological perspectives on cross-border reindeer management]. In: Broderstad, E.G., Niemi, E. and Sommerseth, I. (editors). Grenseoverskridende reindrift før og etter 1905 [Border crossing reindeer management before and after 1905]. Tromsø: Universitetet i Tromsø, Senter for Samiske studier, Skriftserie: 93–113.Google Scholar
Riseth, J.Å., Lie, I., Holst, B., Karlsen, S.R., and Tømmervik, H.. 2009. Climate change and the Sámi reindeer industry in Norway. Probable needs of adaptation. Climate Change: Global Risks, Challenges and Decisions IOP Publishing. IOP Conference. Series: Earth and Environmental Science (Climate Change: Global Risks, Challenges and Decisions, Copenhagen, Denmark, 10–12 March 2009) 6: 34203.9 doi:10.1088/1755-1307/6/4/342039.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rist, S., and Dahdouh-Guebas, F.. 2006. Ethnosciences – a step towards the integration of scientific and indigenous forms of knowledge in the management of natural resources for the future. Environment, Development and Sustainability 8: 467–493.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Roturier, S., and Roué, M.. 2009. Of forest, snow and lichen: Sámi reindeer herders’ knowledge of winter pastures in northern Sweden. Forest Ecology and Management 258: 1960–1967.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ryd, Y. 2007. Snö: renskötaren Johan Rassa berättar [Snow: the narrative of the reindeer herder Johan Rassa]. 2nd edition. Stockholm: Natur och kultur.Google Scholar
Sammallahti, P. 1989. Sámi-suoma sánegirji. Saamelais-suomalainen sanakirja. [Sami–Finnish Dictionary]. Ohcejohka: Jorgaleaddji.Google Scholar
Schiermeier, Q. 2006. On thin ice. Nature 449: 146–147.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Skogland, T. 1978. Chracteristics of snow cover and its relationship to wild moutain reindeer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus L.) feeding strategies. Arctic and Alpine Research 10: 569–580.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Solomon, S., Qin, D., Manning, M., Chen, Z., Marquis, M., Averyt, K.B., Tignor, M., and Miller, H.L. (editors). 2007. Contribution of working group I to the fourth assessment report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,Google Scholar
SOU (Statens offentliga utredningar). 2007. Sverige inför klimatförändringarna – hot och möjligheter [Sweden towards climate change – threats and possibilities]. Klimat och sårbarhetsutredningen. Statens offentliga utredningar [The climate and vulnerability investigation. National public investigations]. Stockholm: Miljödepartementet. Bilaga B27, public report 60.Google Scholar
SMHI, (Swedish Meteorological and Hydrological Institute). 2006a. Climate data November 2006. URL: http://www.smhi.se/klimatdata/manadens-vader/manadens-vader-sverige/november-2006-mildare-an-normalt-trots-kall-inledning-1.4255 (accessed 24 April 2010).Google Scholar
SMHI, (Swedish Meterological and Hydrological Institute). 2006b. Climate data December 2006. URL: http://www.smhi.se/klimatdata/manadens-vader/manadens-vader-sverige/december-2006-nederbordsrik-inledning-och-rekordvarmt-1.4256 (accessed 24 April 2010).Google Scholar
Thing, H. 1977. Behavior, mechanics, and energetics associated with winter cratering by caribou in northwestern Alaska. Fairbanks: University of Alaska, (Biological Papers 18).Google Scholar
Tømmervik, H., Høgda, K.A., Riseth, J.Å., Karlsen, S.R., and Wielgolaski, F.E.. 2005. Endringer i vekstsesongen i Fennoskandia og Kola i perioden 1982–1999 og betydning for reindriften. [Changes in the growing season in Fennoscandia and on the Kola Peninsula in 1982–1999 and their impact on reindeer management]. Rangifer 10: 89–98 (report).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tømmervik, H. 2007. Med økologisk blikk på den Norsk-Svenske reinbeitekonvensjon [With ecological looks at the Norwegian-Swedish reindeer pasture convention]. In: Broderstad, E.G., Niemi, E., and Sommerseth, I. (editors). Grenseoverskridende reindrift før og etter 1905 [Border crossing reindeer management before and after 1905]. Tromsø: Universitetet i Tromsø, Senter for Samiske studier, Skriftserie: 131–142.Google Scholar
Tucker, B., Mahoney, S., Green, B., Menchenton, E., and Russel, R.. 1991. The influence of snow depth and hardness on winter habitat selection by caribou on the southwest coast of Newfoundland. Rangifer 7: 160–163 (special issue).CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Turi, E.I. 2008. Living with climate variation and change: a comparative study of resilience embedded in the social organisation of reindeer pastoralism in Western Finnmark and Yamal Peninsula. Masters dissertation. Oslo: University of Oslo, Department of Political Science.Google Scholar
Turi, J. 1966. Turi's book of Lapland. Oosterhout, The Netherlands: Anthropological Publications. (original title: Muittalus Samid birra).Google Scholar
Villmo, L. 1973. I Sverige [In Sweden]. Reindriftsnytt 2: 23.Google Scholar
Villmo, L. 1974. Klipp fra lappefogdenes årsmeldinger for 1973. [Excerpts from the annual records of the Sámi bailiffs]. Reindriftsnytt 3: 18–20.Google Scholar
Vistnes, I., Nellemann, C., Jordhøy, P., and Strand, O.. 2004. Effects of infrastructure on migration and range use of wild reindeer. Journal of Wildlife Management 68: 101–108.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Weatherhead, E., Gearheard, S., and Barry, R.G.. 2010. Changes in weather persistence: insights from Inuit knowledge. Global Enviornmental Change 20: 523–528.CrossRefGoogle Scholar