Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-lj6df Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-19T21:54:27.673Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Not Just Sticks and Stones: Psychological Abuse and Physical Violence among U.S. State Senators

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  02 March 2021

Rebekah Herrick  and
Sue Thomas Open the ORCID record for Sue Thomas [Opens in a new window]
Rebekah Herrick
Affiliation:
Oklahoma State University
Sue Thomas
Affiliation:
Pacific Institute for Research and Evaluation
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

In this study, we report results of a survey of U.S. state senators about their experiences of psychological abuse, physical violence, and sexualized abuse and violence on the job, as well as gender differences among senators. Overall, our results indicate that more than 80% of state senators reported having faced abuse and violence, and women senators reported more physical violence than men. Moreover, we found differences in the factors that contributed to abuse and violence among women and men state senators. Most notably, women with higher levels of power (party or committee leaders) were more likely than other women to experience psychological abuse and sexualized abuse and violence, and Democratic women senators faced more sexualized abuse and violence than Republican women. The implications for continued service by state senators in the face of these experiences, the likelihood of attracting future candidates, and the implications for gender diversity in office are explored.

Keywords

GenderU.S. state senatorspsychological abusephysical violencesexualized abuse and violence
Type
Research Article
Information
Politics & Gender , Volume 18 , Issue 2 , June 2022 , pp. 422 - 447
Copyright
Copyright © The Author(s), 2021. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of the Women, Gender, and Politics Research Section of the American Political Science Association

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

REFERENCES

Aloe, Jess, and McCullum, April. 2019. “Kiah Morris: The Vermont Incidents That Led to a Black Lawmaker's Resignation.” Burlington (VT) Free Press, January 2. https://www.burlingtonfreepress.com/story/news/2019/01/02/kiah-morris-vermont-incidents-led-black-lawmaker-resign/1990565002/ (accessed June 20, 2020).Google Scholar
Ballington, Julie. 2018. “Turning the Tide on Violence against Women in Politics: How Are We Measuring Up?” Politics & Gender 14 (4): 695–701.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barboni, Eva, and Brooks, Nicola. 2018. “(Anti)Social Media: The Benefits and Pitfalls of Digital for Female Politicians.” Atalanta, March. https://static1.squarespace.com/static/595411f346c3c48fe75fd39c/t/5aa6fa310d9297a484994204/1520892494037/%28Anti%29Social_Media_Report-FINAL2-lowres.pdf (accessed January 3, 2020).Google Scholar
Bardall, Gabrielle S. 2018. “Violence, Politics, and Gender.” In Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Politics, ed. Thompson, William R.. https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228637.013.208.Google Scholar
Bardall, Gabrielle, Bjarnegård, Elin, and Piscopo, Jennifer M.. 2019. “How Is Political Violence Gendered? Disentangling Motives, Forms, and Impacts.” Political Studies. Published online December 3. https://doi.org/10.1177/0032321719881812.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barnello, Michelle A., and Bratton, Kathleen A.. 2007. “Bridging the Gender Gap in Bill Sponsorship.” Legislative Studies Quarterly 32 (3): 449–74.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Berdahl, Jennifer L. 2007. “Harassment Based on Sex: Protecting Social Status in the Context of Gender Hierarchy.” Academy of Management Review 32 (2): 641–58.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Biroli, Flavia. 2018. “Violence against Women and Reactions to Gender Equality in Politics.” Politics & Gender 14 (2): 681–85.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bjarnegård, Elin. 2018. “Making Gender Visible in Election Violence: Strategies for Data Collection.” Politics & Gender 14 (4): 690–95.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bjelland, Heidi Fischer, and Bjørgo, Tore. 2014. “Trusler og trusselhendelser mot politikere: En spørreundersøkelse blant norske stortingsrepresentanter og regjeringsmedlemmer” [Threats and threatening incidents against politicians: A survey among Norwegian parliamentary representatives and government members]. https://phs.brage.unit.no/phs-xmlui/bitstream/handle/11250/226703/trusler.pdf?sequence=1 (accessed September 25, 2020).Google Scholar
Bjørgo, Tore, and Silkoset, Emilie. 2018. “Threats and Threatening Approaches to Politicians: A Survey of Norwegian Parliamentarians and Cabinet Ministers.” https://phs.brage.unit.no/phs-xmlui/bitstream/handle/11250/2564720/threats_and_threatening.pdf?sequence=1 (accessed September 25, 2020).Google Scholar
Bratton, Kathleen A., and Haynie, Kerry L.. 1999. “Agenda-Setting and Legislative Success in State Legislatures: The Effects of Gender and Race.” Journal of Politics 61 (3): 658–79.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brescoll, Victoria L. 2011. “Who Takes the Floor and Why: Gender, Power, and Volubility in Organizations.” Administrative Science Quarterly 56 (4): 622–41.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brescoll, Victoria L., Okimoto, Tyler G., and Vial, Andrea C.. 2018. “You've Come a Long Way. … Maybe: How Moral Emotions Trigger Backlash against Women Leaders.” Journal of Social Issues 74 (1): 144–64.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Collignon, Sofia, and Rudig, Wolfgang. 2020. “Harassment and Intimidation of Parliamentary Candidates in the United Kingdom.” Political Quarterly 91 (2): 422–29.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Das, Anirudda. 2009. “Sexual Harassment at Work in the United States.” Archives of Sexual Behavior 38 (6): 909–21.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Delli Carpini, Michael X., and Keeter, Scott. 1996. What Americans Know about Politics and Why It Matters. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Dillman, Don A. 2007. Mail and Internet Surveys: The Tailored Design Method. 2nd ed. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.Google Scholar
Di Meco, Lucina. 2019. “#She Persisted: Women, Politics & Power in the New Media World.” Wilson Center, Fall. https://static1.squarespace.com/static/5dba105f102367021c44b63f/t/5dc431aac6bd4e7913c45f7d/1573138953986/191106+SHEPERSISTED_Final.pdf (accessed January 3, 2020).Google Scholar
Dodson, Debra L 1998. “Representing Women's Interests in the U.S. House of Representatives.” In Women and Elective Office, eds. Thomas, Sue and Wilcox, Clyde. New York: Oxford University Press, 130–49.Google Scholar
Dodson, Debra L 2001. “Acting for Women: Is What Legislators Say, What They Do?” In The Impact of Women in Public Office, ed. Carroll, Susan J.. Bloomington: University of Indiana Press, 225–42.Google Scholar
Dodson, Debra L., and Carroll, Susan J.. 1991. Reshaping the Agenda: Women in State Legislatures. New Brunswick, NJ: Eagleton Institute of Politics, Center for American Women and Politics, Rutgers University. https://cawp.rutgers.edu/sites/default/files/resources/reshapingtheagenda.pdf (accessed September 21, 2020).Google Scholar
Eagly, Alice H., and Karau, Steven J.. 2002. “Role Congruity Theory of Prejudice toward Female Leaders.” Psychological Review 109 (3): 573–98.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Einstein, Katherine Levine, and Glick, David M.. 2017. “Cities in American Federalism: Evidence on State–Local Government Conflict from a Survey of Mayors.” Publius: The Journal of Federalism 47 (4): 599–621.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Every-Palmer, Susanna, Barry-Walsh, Justin, and Pathé, Michele. 2015. “Harassment, Stalking, Threats and Attacks Targeting New Zealand Politicians: A Mental Health Issue.” Australian & New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry 49 (7): 634–41.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fisher, Samuel H. III, and Herrick, Rebekah. 2013. “Old versus New: The Comparative Efficiency of Internet Surveys of State Legislators.” State Politics and Policy Quarterly 13 (2): 147–63.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Frederick, Brian. 2011. “Gender Turnover and Roll Call Voting in the US Senate.” Journal of Women, Politics & Policy 32 (3): 193–210.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fulton, Sarah A., Maestas, Cherie D., Sandy Maisel, L., and Stone, Walter J.. 2006. “The Sense of a Woman: Gender, Ambition, and the Decision to Run for Congress.” Political Research Quarterly 59 (2): 235–48.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Greenwood, Mark, Bakir, Mehmet E., Gorrell, Genevieve, Song, Xingyi, Roberts, Ian, and Bontcheva, Kalina. 2019. “Online Abuse of UK MPs in 2015 to 2019: Perpetrators, Targets, and Topic.” http://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/145982/1/1904.11230v1.pdf (accessed January 3, 2020).Google Scholar
Håkansson, Sandra. Forthcoming. “Do Women Pay a Higher Price for Power? Gender Bias in Political Violence in Sweden.” Journal of Politics.Google Scholar
Hanania, Richard. 2017. “The Personalities of Politicians: A Big Five Survey of American Legislators.” Personality and Individual Differences 108 (1): 164–67.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Herrick, Rebekah, and Franklin, Lori D.. 2019. “Is it Safe to Keep This Job? The Costs of Violence on the Psychological Health and Careers of US Mayors.” Social Science Quarterly 100 (6): 2047–58.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Herrick, Rebekah, Thomas, Sue, Franklin, Lori, Godwin, Marcia, Gnabasik, Eveline, and Schroedel, Jean. 2019. “Physical Violence and Psychological Abuse against Female and Male Mayors in the United States.” Politics, Groups and Identity. Published online June 16. https://doi.org/10.1080/21565503.2019.1629321.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Holland, Kathryn J., and Cortina, Lilia M.. 2013. “When Sexism and Feminism Collide: The Sexual Harassment of Feminist Working Women.” Psychology of Women Quarterly 37 (2): 192–208.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Holland, Kathryn J., and Cortina, Lilia M.. 2016. “Sexual Harassment: Undermining the Wellbeing of Working Women.” In Handbook on Well-Being of Working Women, eds. Connerley, Mary L. and Wu, Jiyan. Dordrecht: Springer, 83–101.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU). 2016. “Sexism, Harassment and Violence against Women Parliamentarians.” Issues Brief, October 2016. http://www.ipu.org/pdf/publications/issuesbrief-e.pdf (accessed January 3, 2020).Google Scholar
Inter-Parliamentary Union (IPU). 2018. “Sexism, Harassment and Violence against Women in Parliaments in Europe.” Issues Brief, October 2018. https://www.ipu.org/resources/publications/issue-briefs/2018-10/sexism-harassment-and-violence-against-women-in-parliaments-in-europe (accessed January 3, 2020).Google Scholar
James, David V., Sukhwal, Seema, Farnham, Frank R., Evans, Julie, Barrie, Claire, Taylor, Alice, and Wilson, Simon P.. 2016. “Harassment and Stalking of Members of the United Kingdom Parliament: Associations and Consequences.” Journal of Forensic Psychiatry & Psychology 27 (3): 309–30.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kabat-Farr, Dana, and Cortina, Lilia M.. 2014. “Sex-Based Harassment in Employment: New Insights into Gender and Context.” Law and Human Behavior 38 (1): 58–72.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Krook, Mona Lena. 2017. “Violence against Women in Politics.” Journal of Democracy 28 (1): 74–88.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Krook, Mona Lena. 2018. “Westminster Too: On Sexual Harassment in British Politics.” Political Quarterly 89 (1): 65–72.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Krook, Mona Lena, and Sanín, Juliana Restrepo. 2016. “Violence against Women in Politics: A Defense of the Concept.” Política y Gobierno 23 (2): 459–90.Google Scholar
Krook, Mona Lena, and Sanín, Juliana Restrepo. 2020. “The Cost of Doing Politics? Analyzing Violence and Harassment against Female Politicians.” Political Perspectives 18 (3): 740–55.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kuperberg, Rebecca. 2018. “Intersectional Violence against Women in Politics.” Politics & Gender 14 (4): 685–90.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lawless, Jennifer L. 2012. Becoming a Candidate: Political Ambition and the Decision to Run for Office. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Maestas, Cherie D., Fulton, Sarah, Maisel, Sandy, and Stone, Walter. 2006. “When to Risk It? Institutions, Ambition, and the Decision to Run for the U.S. House.” American Political Science Review 100 (2): 195–208.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mansbridge, Jane, and Shames, Shauna L.. 2008. “Toward a theory of Backlash: Dynamic Resistance and the Central Role of Power.” Politics & Gender 4 (4): 623–34.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McDonald, Paula. 2012. “Workplace: Sexual Harassment 30 Years On: A Review of the Literature.” International Journal of Management Reviews 14 (1): 1–17.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McLoughlin, Liam, and Ward, Stephen. 2017. “Turds, Traitors and Tossers: The Abuse of UK MPs via Tweeter.” Presented at the European Consortium of Political Research Joint Sessions, University of Nottingham, April 25–29.Google Scholar
National Conference of State Legislatures (NCSL). 2017. “Full- and Part-Time Legislatures.” June 14. https://www.ncsl.org/research/about-state-legislatures/full-and-part-time-legislatures.aspx (accessed September 25, 2020).Google Scholar
National Democratic Institute (NDI). 2016. “#NotTheCost.” http://www.ndi.org/not-the-cost (accessed March 21, 2018).Google Scholar
Nownes, Anthony J., and Freeman, Patricia K.. 2019. “Gender-Based Differences in Information Use and Processing among State Legislators.” Journal of Women, Politics and Policy 40 (4): 473–97.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Okimoto, Tyler G., and Brescoll, Victoria L.. 2010. “The Price of Power: Power Seeking and Backlash against Female Politicians.” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 36 (7): 923–36.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Piquero, Nicole Leeper, Piquero, Alex R., Craig, Jessica M., and Clipper, Stephen J.. 2013. “Assessing Research on Workplace Violence, 2000–2012.” Aggression and Violent Behavior 18: 383–94.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Purtle, Jonathan, Lê-Scherban, Félice, Wang, Xi, Brown, Emily, and Chilton, Mariana. 2019. “State Legislators’ Opinions about Adverse Childhood Experiences as Risk Factors for Adult Behavioral Health Conditions.” Psychiatric Services 70 (10): 894–900.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Quick, James Campbell, and Ann McFadyen, M.. 2017. “Sexual Harassment: Have We Made Any Progress?” Journal of Occupational Health Psychology 22 (3): 286–98.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Samnani, Al-Karim, and Singh, Parbudyal. 2012. “20 Years of Workplace Bullying Research: A Review of the Antecedents and Consequences of Bullying in the Workplace.” Aggression and Violent Behavior 17: 581–89.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schat, Aaron, Frone, Michael R., and Kevin Kelloway, E.. 2006. “Prevalence of Workplace Aggression in the U.S. Workforce: Findings from a National Study.” In Handbook of Workplace Violence, eds. Kevin Kelloway, E., Barling, Julian, and Hurrell, Joseph J. Jr. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 47–89.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schneider, Paige, and Carroll, David. 2020. “Conceptualizing More Inclusive Elections: Violence against Women in Elections and Gendered Election Violence.” Policy Studies 41 (2–3): 172–89.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shames, Shauna L. 2017. Out of the Running: Why Millennials Reject Political Careers and Why It Matters. New York: New York University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Southern, Rosalynd, and Harmer, Emily. 2019. “Twitter, Incivility and ‘Everyday’ Gendered Othering: An Analysis of Tweets Sent to UK Members of Parliament.” Social Science Computer Review. Published online August 6. https://doi.org/10.1177/089443934439319865519.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Squire, Peverill. 2017. “A Squire Index Update.” State Politics & Policy Quarterly 17 (4): 361–71.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thomas, Sue. 1994. How Women Legislate. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Thomas, Sue. 2002. “The Personal Is Political: Antecedents of Gendered Choices of Elected Representatives.” Sex Roles 47: 343–53.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thomas, Sue, Herrick, Rebekah, Franklin, Lori, Godwin, Marcia, Gnabasik, Eveline, and Schroedel, Jean. 2019. “Not for the Faint of Heart: Assessing Physical Violence and Psychological Abuse against U.S. Mayors.” State and Local Government Review 51 (1): 57–67.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vega, Arturo, and Firestone, Juanita M.. 1995. “The Effects of Gender on Congressional Behavior and Substantive Representation of Women.” Legislative Studies Quarterly 20 (2): 213–22.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Supplementary material: File

Herrick and Thomas supplementary material

Appendices A and B

Download Herrick and Thomas supplementary material(File)
File 18.7 KB