Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-gb8f7 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-23T07:26:30.551Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Bargain Shopping: How Candidate Sex Lowers the Cost of Voting

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  11 June 2019

Heather L. Ondercin  and
Sarah A. Fulton Open the ORCID record for Sarah A. Fulton [Opens in a new window]
Heather L. Ondercin
Affiliation:
Appalachian State University
Sarah A. Fulton
Affiliation:
Texas A&M University
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Previous research shows that candidate sex serves as a heuristic that lessens the informational burden of political decision making. Building upon this research, we investigate the heuristic effects of candidate sex on the decision to turnout to vote in an election. We posit that by providing ideological and nonideological information about the candidates, candidate sex serves as an informational shortcut that reduces the costs associated with voting and enhances the likelihood of voting in elections when a female candidate is present. Our expectations are supported, even after controlling for a variety of individual-, candidate- and district-level characteristics that are correlated with turnout. Individuals are more likely to turnout in elections featuring a woman candidate, and consistent with our expectations, these effects are especially strong for female Democrats, whose sex and party heuristics convey a consistent “liberal” cue. Our research offers theoretical and empirical contributions to the literature on gender, candidate heuristics, and voter turnout.

Keywords

Candidate sexturnoutvotinginformation costsideologystereotypesheuristicswomen candidates
Type
Research Article
Information
Politics & Gender , Volume 16 , Issue 3 , September 2020 , pp. 711 - 737
Copyright
Copyright © The Women and Politics Research Section of the American Political Science Association 2019

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

REFERENCES

Achen, Christopher H., and Bartels, Larry M.. 2017. Democracy for Realists: Why Elections Do Not Produce Responsive Government. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Adams, James, Merrill, Samuel III, Simas, Elizabeth N., and Stone, Walter J.. 2011. “When Candidates Value Good Character: A Spatial Model with Applications to Congressional Elections.” Journal of Politics 73 (1): 17–30.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Adams, James, and Merrill, Samuel. 2003. “Voter Turnout and Candidate Strategies in American Elections.” Journal of Politics 65 (1): 161–89.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Atkeson, Lonna Rae. 2003. “Not All Cues are Created Equal: The Conditional Impact of Female Candidates on Political Engagement.” Journal of Politics 65 (4): 1040–61.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bailey, Mandi Bates, and Nawara, Steven P.. 2017. “Gay Candidates, Group Stereotypes, and the News Media: An Experimental Design.” In LGBTQ Politics: A Critical Reader, eds. Burgess, Susan, Brettschneider, Marla, and Keating, Cricket. New York: New York University Press, 334–49.Google Scholar
Baron, Reuben M., and Kenny, David A.. 1986. “The Moderator–Mediator Variable Distinction in Social Psychological Research: Conceptual, Strategic, and Statistical Considerations.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 51 (6): 1173–82.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bauer, Nichole M. 2015a. “Who Stereotypes Female Candidates? Identifying Individual Differences in Feminine Stereotype Reliance.” Politics, Groups, & Identities 3 (11): 94–110.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bauer, Nichole M. 2015b. “Emotional, Sensitive, and Unfit for Office? Gender Stereotypes Activation and Support for Female Candidates.” Political Psychology 36 (6): 691–708.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bauer, Nichole M. 2018. “The Effects of Partisan Trespassing Strategies Across Candidate Sex.” Political Behavior 1–19.Google Scholar
Blais, André. 2000. To Vote or Not to Vote? The Merits and Limits of Rational Choice Theory. Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bond, Jon R., Covington, Cary, and Fleisher, Richard. 1985. “Explaining Challenger Quality in Congressional Elections.” Journal of Politics 47 (2): 510–29.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brambor, Thomas, Clark, William R., and Golder, Matt. 2006. “Understanding Interaction Models: Improving Empirical Analyses.” Political Analysis 14 (1): 63–82.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Broockman, David E. 2014. “Do Female Politicians Empower Women to Vote or Run for Office? A Regression and Discontinuity Approach.” Electoral Studies 34:190–204.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brown, Elizabeth R., Diekman, Amanda B., and Schneider, Monica C.. 2011. “A Change Will Do Us Good: Threats Diminish Typical Preferences for Male Leaders.” Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin 37 (7): 930–41.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Burden, Barry C. 2004. “Candidate Positioning in US Congressional Elections.” British Journal of Political Science 34 (2): 211–27.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Burns, Nancy, Schlozman, Kay Lehman, and Verba, Sidney. 2001. The Private Roots of Public Action. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Buttice, Matthew K., and Stone, Walter J.. 2012. “Candidates Matter: Policy and Quality Differences in Congressional Elections.” Journal of Politics 74 (3): 870–87.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Campbell, Angus. 1960. “Surge and Decline: A Study of Electoral Change.” Public Opinion Quarterly 24:397–418.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cassese, Erin C., and Holman, Mirya R.. 2017. “Party and Gender Stereotypes in Campaign Attacks.” Political Behavior 1–23.Google Scholar
Crowder-Meyer, Melody, and Cooperman, Rosalyn. 2018. “Can't Buy Them Love: How Party Culture among Donors Contributes to the Party Gap in Women's Representation.” Journal of Politics 80 (4): 1211–24.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Delli Carpini, Michael X., and Keeter, Scott. 1996. What Americans Know About Politics and Why It Matters. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Ditonto, Tessa. 2017. “A High Bar or a Double Standard? Gender, Competence, and Information in Political Campaigns.” Political Behavior 39 (2): 301–25.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dolan, Kathleen. 2004. “The Impact of Candidate Sex on Evaluations of Candidates for the US House of Representatives.” Social Science Quarterly 85 (1): 206–17.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dolan, Kathleen. 2014. When Does Gender Matter? Women Candidates and Gender Stereotypes in American Elections. New York: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Downs, A. 1957. An Economic Theory of Democracy. New York: Harper Row.Google Scholar
Fridkin, Kim L., and Kenney, Patrick J.. 2014. “How the Gender of U.S. Senators Influence People's Understanding and Engagement in Politics.” Journal of Politics 76 (4): 1017–31.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fulton, Sarah A., and Ondercin, Heather L.. 2013. “Does Sex Encourage Commitment? The Impact of Candidate Choices on the Time-to-Decision.” Political Behavior 34 (4): 665–86.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fulton, Sarah A., Maestas, Cherie D., Maisel, L. Sandy, and Stone, Walter J.. 2006. “The Sense of a Woman: Gender, Ambition and the Decision to Run for Congress.” Political Research Quarterly 59 (2): 235–48.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hicks, Raymond, and Tingley, Dustin. 2011. “Causal Mediation Analysis” Stata Journal 11 (4): 605–19.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Holman, Mirya R. 2014. Women in Politics In The American City. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.Google Scholar
Holman, Mirya R., Merolla, Jennifer, and Zechmeister, Elizabeth. 2011. “Sex, Stereotypes, and Security: An Experimental Study of the Effect of Crises on Assessments of Gender and Leadership.” Journal of Women, Politics, & Policy 32 (3): 173–92.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Holman, Mirya R., Merolla, Jennifer, and Zechmeister, Elizabeth. 2016. “Terrorist Threat, Masculine Stereotypes, and Candidate Evaluations.” Political Research Quarterly 69 (1): 134–47.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Holman, Mirya R., Merolla, Jennifer, and Zechmeister, Elizabeth. 2017. “Can Experience Overcome Stereotypes in Times of Terror Threat?” Research & Politics 4 (1). DOI: 10.1177/2053168016688121.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Huddy, Leone, and Terkildsen, Nadya. 1993. “Gender Stereotypes and the Perception of Male and Female Candidates.” American Journal of Political Science 37 (1): 119–47.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Imai, Kosuke, Keele, Luke J., and Tingley, Dustin. 2010. “A General Approach to Causal Mediation Analysis.” Psychological Methods 15 (4): 309–34.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jackman, Robert W. 1987. “Political Institutions and Voter Turnout in Industrial Democracies.” American Political Science Review 81 (2): 405–23.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jacobson, Gary C. 1987. The Politics of Congressional Elections. Boston: Little Brown & Co.Google Scholar
Jacobson, Gary C., and Kernell, Samuel. 1983. Strategy and Choice in Congressional Elections. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Katosh, John P., and Traugott, Michael W.. 1981. “The Consequences of Validated and Self-Reported Voting Measures.” Public Opinion Quarterly 45 (4): 519–35.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kelly, Jarrod T., Brown, Elizabeth R., Diekman, Amanda B., and Schneider, Monica C.. 2018. “The Change We Believe In: The Role of Socioeconomic Conditions in Evaluations of Black Political Candidates.” Electoral Studies 54:254–60.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
King, David C., and Matland, Richard E.. 2003. “Sex and the Grand Old Party: An Experimental Investigation of the Effect of Candidate Sex on Support for a Republican Candidate.” American Politics Research 31 (6): 595–612.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Koch, Jeffrey W. 2000. “Do Citizens Apply Gender Stereotypes to Infer Candidates’ Ideological Orientations?” Journal of Politics 62 (2): 414–29.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Koch, Jeffrey W. 2002. “Gender Stereotypes and Citizens’ Impressions of House Candidates’ Ideological Orientations.” American Journal of Political Science 46 (2): 453–62.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kuklinski, James H., Quirk, Paul J., Jerit, Jennifer, Schwieder, David, and Rich, Robert F.. 2000. “Misinformation and the Currency of Democratic Citizenship.” Journal of Politics 62 (3): 790–816.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kuklinski, James H., and Quirk, Paul J.. 2000. “Reconsidering the rational public: Cognition, heuristics, and mass opinion.” Elements of reason: Cognition, choice, and the bounds of rationality: 153–82.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kunda, Ziva, and Spencer, Steven J.. 2003. “When Do Stereotypes Come to Mind and When Do They Color Judgment?” Psychological Bulletin 129 (4): 522–44.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lassen, David Dreyer. 2005. “The Effect of Information on Voter Turnout: Evidence from a Natural Experiment.” American Journal of Political Science 49 (1): 103–18.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lau, Richard R., and Redlawsk, David P.. 2001. “Advantages and Disadvantages of Cognitive Heuristics in Political Decision Making.” American Journal of Political Science 45 (4): 951–71.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lawless, Jennifer L. 2004. “Politics of Presence? Congresswomen and Symbolic Representation.” Political Research Quarterly 57 (1): 81–99.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lupia, Arthur. 1994. “Shortcuts Versus Encyclopedias: Information and Voting Behavior in California Insurance Reform Elections.” American Political Science Review 88 (1): 63–76.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Matson, Marsha, and Fine, Terri Susan. 2006. “Gender, Ethnicity, and Ballot Information: Ballot Cues in Low-Information Elections.” State Politics & Policy Quarterly 6 (1): 49–72.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McCurley, Carl, and Mondak, Jeffery J.. 1995. “Inspected by #1184063113: The Influence of Incumbents’ Competence and Integrity in US House Elections.” American Journal of Political Science 39 (4): 864–85.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McDermott, Monika L. 1997. “Voting Cues in Low-Information Elections: Candidate Gender as a Social Information Variable in Contemporary United States Elections.” American Journal of Political Science 41 (1): 270–83.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McDermott, Monika L. 1998. “Race and Gender Cues in Low-Information Elections.” Political Research Quarterly 51 (4): 895–918.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mo, Cecilia Hyunjung. 2015. “The Consequences of Explicit and Implicit Gender Attitudes and Candidate Quality in the Calculations of Voters.” Political Behavior 37 (2): 357–95.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mondak, Jeffery J. 1995. “Competence, Integrity, and the Electoral Success of Congressional Incumbents.” Journal of Politics 57 (4): 1043–69.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Niemi, Richard G. 1976. “Costs of Voting and Non-Voting.” Public Choice 27 (Fall): 115–19.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ondercin, Heather L., and Welch, Susan. 2009 “Comparing Predictors of Women's Congressional Election Success Candidates, Primaries, and the General Election.” American Politics Research 37 (4): 593–613.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ondercin, Heather L., and Jones-White, Daniel. 2011. “Gender Jeopardy: What is the Impact of Gender Differences in Political Knowledge on Political Participation?” Social Science Quarterly 92 (3): 675–94.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Palmer, Barbara, and Simon, Dennis Michael. 2006. Breaking the Political Glass Ceiling: Women and Congressional Elections. Milton Park, UK: Taylor & Francis.Google Scholar
Rosenstone, Steven J., and Wolfinger, Raymond E.. 1978. “The Effect of Registration Laws on Voter Turnout.” American Political Science Review 72 (1): 22–45.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rosenstone, Steven J., and Hansen, John Mark. 1993. Mobilization, Participation and Democracy in America. New York: MacMillan.Google Scholar
Sanbonmatsu, Kira, and Dolan, Kathleen. 2009. “Do Gender Stereotypes Transcend Party?” Political Research Quarterly 62 (3): 485–94.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sanders, Elizabeth. 1980. “On the Costs, Utilities, and Simple Joys of Voting.” Journal of Politics 42 (3): 854–63.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schaffner, Brian F., and Streb, Matthew J.. 2002. “The Partisan Heuristic in Low-Information Elections.” Public Opinion Quarterly 66 (4): 559–81.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schneider, Monica C., and Bos, Angela L.. 2011. “An Exploration of the Content of Stereotypes of Black Politicians.” Political Psychology 32 (2): 205–33.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schneider, Monica C., and Bos, Angela L.. 2016. “The Interplay of Candidate Party and Gender in Evaluations Political Candidates.” Journal of Women, Politics and Policy 37 (3): 279–79.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schneider, Monica C., and Bos, Angela L.. 2014. “Measuring Female Politician Stereotypes.” Political Psychology 35 (2): 245–66.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Scholzman, Kay L. 2002. “Citizen Participation in America: What Do We Know? Why Do We Care?” In The State of the Discipline, eds. Katznelson, Ira and Milner, Helen. New York: WW Norton.Google Scholar
Silver, Brian D., Abramson, Paul R., and Anderson, Barbara A.. 1986. “The Presence of Others and Overreporting of Voting in American National Elections.” Public Opinion Quarterly 50 (2): 228–39.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sniderman, Paul M., Brody, Richard A., and Tetlock, Philip E.. 1991. Reasoning and Choice: Explorations in Political Psychology. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stone, Walter J., and Simas, Elizabeth N.. 2010. “Candidate Valence and Ideological Positions in US House Elections.” American Journal of Political Science 54 (2): 371–88.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stone, Walter J., and Maisel, L. Sandy. 2003. “The Not-So-Simple Calculus of Winning: Potential US House Candidates’ Nomination and General Election Prospects.” Journal of Politics 65 (4): 951–77.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Swers, Michele L. 2002. The Difference Women Make: The Policy Impact of Women in Congress. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Traugott, Michael W., and Katosh, John P.. 1979. “Response Validity in Surveys of Voting Behavior.” Public Opinion Quarterly 43 (3): 359–77.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tufte, Edward R. 1975. “Determinants of the Outcomes of Midterm Congressional Elections.” American Political Science Review 69:812–26.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Verba, Sidney, Schlozman, Kay Lehman, and Brady, Henry E.. 1995. Voice and Equality: Civic Voluntarism in American Politics. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wolbrecht, Christina, and Campbell, David E.. 2007. “Leading by Example: Female Members of Parliament as Political Role Models.” American Journal of Political Science 51 (4): 921–39.CrossRefGoogle Scholar