Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-8ctnn Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-28T15:35:10.517Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Acute Psychological Impact of Disaster and Large-Scale Trauma: Limitations of Traditional Interventions and Future Practice Recommendations

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  28 June 2012

Matt J. Gray ,
Shira Maguen  and
Brett T. Litz
Matt J. Gray*
Affiliation:
Department of Psychology, University of Wyoming, Laramie, Wyoming, USA
Shira Maguen
Affiliation:
Boston Veterans Affairs Health Care SystemBoston University School of Medicine Boston, Massachusetts, USA
Brett T. Litz
Affiliation:
Boston Veterans Affairs Health Care SystemBoston University School of Medicine Boston, Massachusetts, USA
*
University of Wyoming, Department of Psychology, PO Box 3415, Laramie, WY 82071-3415USA E-mail: gray@uwyo.edu
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Nearly everyone will experience emotional and psychological distress in the immediate aftermath of a disaster or other large-scale traumatic event. Although extremely upsetting and disruptive, the reaction is understood best as a human response to inordinate adversity, which in the majority of cases remits over time without formal intervention. Nevertheless, some people experience sustained difficulties. To prevent chronic post-traumatic difficulties, mental health professionals provide early interventions soon after traumatic exposure. These interventions typically take the form of single-session debriefings, which have been applied routinely following disasters. The research bearing on these traditional forms of early crisis interventions has shown that, although well-received by victims, there is no empirical support for their continued use. However, promising evidence-based, early interventions have been developed, which are highlighted. Finally, traumatic bereavement and complicated grief in survivors of disasters, an area largely neglected in the field, is discussed.

Keywords

cognitive-behavioral interventionscritical incident stress debriefingpost-disaster treatmentpsycho-educationtraumatic bereavementtraumatic grief
Type
Special Reports
Information
Prehospital and Disaster Medicine , Volume 19 , Special Issue 1: Psychosocial Themes , March 2004 , pp. 64 - 72
Copyright
Copyright © World Association for Disaster and Emergency Medicine 2004

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

1.Green, B: Disasters and post-traumatic stress disorder. In: Davidson, J, Foa, E (eds), Post-traumatic Stress Disorder: DSM-IV and Beyond. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press, 1993, pp 75–98.Google Scholar
2.Resnick, H, Acierno, R, Holmes, M, et al. : Emergency evaluation and intervention with female victims of rape and other violence. J Clin Psychol 2000;56:1317–1333.3.0.CO;2-H>CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
3.American Psychiatric Association: Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (4th ed) Washington, DC, American Psychiatric Association: 1994.Google Scholar
4.Kessler, RC, Sonnega, A, Bromet, E, et al. :Post-traumatic stress disorder in the National Comorbidity Survey. Arch Gen Psychiat 1995;52:1048–1060.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
5.Breslau, N, Kessler, R, Chilcoat, H, et al. : Trauma and post-traumatic stress disorder in the community: The 1996 Detroit area survey of trauma. Arch Gen Psychiat 1998;55:626–632.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
6.Shalev, A,: Stress management and debriefing: Historical concepts and present patterns. In: Raphael, BWilson, J (eds), Psychological Debriefing. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000.Google Scholar
7.Bisson, J, McFarlane, A, Rose, C: Psychological debriefing. In: Foa, E, Keane, T, Friedman, M (eds), EffectiveTtreatments for post-traumatic stress disorder.New York:Guilford, 2000, pp 39–59.Google Scholar
8.Mitchell, JT, Everly, GS (eds): Critical Incident Stress Debriefing: An Operations Manual for the Prevention of Traumatic Stress among Emergency Services and Disaster Workers (2nd ed). Ellicott City, MD: Chevron Publishing Corporation, 1993.Google Scholar
9.Mitchell, JT, Everly, GS: The critical incident stress debriefing (critical incident stress debriefing) and the prevention of work related traumatic stress among high-risk occupational groups. In: Everly, G, Lating, J (eds), Psychotraumatology: Key Papers and Core Concepts in Post-Traumatic Stress. New York, NY: Plenum Press, 1995, pp 159–169.Google Scholar
10.Deahl, M, Srinivasan, M, Jones, N, et al. : Preventing psychological trauma in soldiers: The role of operational stress training and psychological debriefing. Brit J Med Psychol 2000;73:77–85.Google Scholar
11.Litz, B, Gray, M, Bryant, R, Adler, A: Early intervention for trauma: Current status and future directions. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice 2002;9:112–134.Google Scholar
12.Van Emmerik, A, Kamphuis, J, Hulsbosch, A, Emmelkamp, P: Single-session debriefing after psychological trauma: A meta-analysis. Lancet 2002;360:766–770.Google Scholar
13.Everly, GS, Flannery, RB, Mitchell, JT: Critical incident stress management(critical incident stress management): A review of the literature. Aggression and Violent Behavior 2000;5:23–40.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
14.Hokanson, M, Wirth, B: The critical incident stress debriefing process for the Los Angeles County Fire Department: Automatic and effective. Inter J Emer Mental Health 2000;2:249–257.Google ScholarPubMed
15.Young, BH, Gerrity, E: Critical incident stress debriefing (critical incident stress debriefing): Value and limitations in disaster response. National Center for Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder Clinical Quarterly 1994;4:17–19.Google Scholar
16.Gist, R, Woodall, S: There are no simple solutions to complex problems. In: Violanti, JM, Douglas, P (eds.). Post-traumatic Stress Intervention: Challenges, Issues, and Perspectives. Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas, 2000, pp 81–95.Google Scholar
17.Rose, S, Bisson, J, Wessely, S: Psychological Debriefing for Preventing Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (post-traumatic stress disorder) (Cochrane Review). In: The Cochrane Library; 3,Oxford: Update Software. 2001.Google Scholar
18.Bisson, JI, Jenkins, PL, Alexander, J, Bannister C: Randomized controlled trial of psychological debriefing for victims of acute burn trauma. Brit J Psychiat 1997;171:78–81.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
19.Conlon, L, Fahy, TJ, Conroy, R: post-traumatic stress disorder in ambulant RTA victims: A randomized controlled trial of debriefing. J Psychosom Res 1999;46:37–44.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
20.Hobbs, M, Mayou, R, Harrison, B, Warlock, P: A randomized trial of psychological debriefing for victims of road traffic accidents. Brit Med J 1996;313:1438–1439.Google Scholar
21.Mayou, R, Ehlers, A, Hobbs, M: Psychological debriefing for road traffic accident victims: Three-year follow-up of a randomised controlled trial. Brit J Psychiat 2000;176:589–593.Google Scholar
22.Rose, S, Brewin, CR, Andrews, B, Kirk, M: A randomized controlled trial of individual psychological debriefing for victims of violent crime. Psychol Med 1999;29:793–799.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
23.Everly, GS, Mitchell, JT: The debriefing “controversy” and crisis intervention: A review of the lexical and substantive issues. Inter J Emer Mental Health 2000;2:211–225.Google Scholar
24.Lundin, T: Long-term outcome of bereavement. Brit J Psychiat 1984;145:424–428.Google Scholar
25.Prigerson, HG, Shear, MK, Jacobs, SC, et al. : Consensus criteria for traumatic grief: A preliminary empirical test. Brit J Psychiat 1999;174:67–73.Google Scholar
26.Pfefferbaum, B, Call, JA, Lensgraf, SJ, et al. :Traumatic grief in a convenience sample of victims seeking support services after a terrorist accident. Ann Clin Psychiat 2001;13:19–24.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
27.Rynearson, EK, McCreery, JM: Bereavement after homicide: A synergism of trauma and loss. Amer J Psychiat 1993;150:258–261.Google Scholar
28.Prigerson, HG, Jacobs, SC: Traumatic grief as a distinct disorder: A rationale, consensus criteria, and a preliminary empirical test. In: Stroebe, MS, Stroebe, W, Hansson, RO, Schut, H, (eds), New Handbook of Bereavement: Consequences, coping, and care. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association Books, 2001, pp 613–645.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
29.Prigerson, HG, Kupfer, DJ, Beery, LC, et al. :Traumatic grief as a risk factor for suicidal ideation among young adult men and women. Amer J Psychiat 1999;156:1994–1995.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
30.Raphael, B, Minkov, C, Dobson, M. Psychotherapeutic and Pharmacological Intervention for Bereaved Persons. In: Stroebe, MS, Stroebe, W, Hansson, RO, Schut, H (eds), New Handbook of Bereavement: Consequences, Coping, and Care. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association Books, 2001, pp 587–612.Google Scholar
31.Murphy, SA, Das Gupta, A, Cain, KC, et al. : Changes in parents' mental distress after the violent death of an adolescent of young adult child: A longitudinal prospective analysis. Death Studies 1999;23:129–159.Google Scholar
32.Ness, DE, Pfeffer, CR: Sequelae of bereavement resulting from suicide. Amer J Psychiat 1990;147:279–285.Google ScholarPubMed
33.Seguin, M, Lesage, A, Kiely, MC: Parental bereavement after suicide and accident: A comparative study. Suicide and Life Threatening Behavior 1995;25:489–498.Google Scholar
34.Lehman, DR, Ellard, JG, Wortman, CB, Williams, AF: Long-term effects of losing a spouse or child in a motor vehicle crash. J Person Soc Psychol 1987;52:218–231.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
35.Schwartzberg, SS, Halgin, RP: Treating grieving clients: The importance of cognitive change. Professional Psychology: Research & Practice 1991;22:240–246.Google Scholar
36.Janoff-Bulman, R: Assumptive worlds and the stress of traumatic events: Application of the schema construct. Social Cognition 1989;7:113–136.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
37.Spooren, DJ, Henderick, H, Jannes, C: Survey description of stress of parents bereaved from a child killed in a traffic accident. A retrospective study of a victim support group. Omega 2000;42:171–185.Google Scholar
38.Lehman, DR, Ellard, JG, Wortman, CB: Social support for the bereaved: Recipients and providers' perspectives on what is helpful. J Consult Clin Psychol 1986;54:438–446.Google Scholar
39.Armour, MP: Journey of family members of homicide victims: A qualitative study of their posthomicide experience. Amer J Orthopsychiat 2002;72:372–382.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
40.Murphy, SA, Johnson, C, Cain, K, et al. : Broad-spectrum group treatment for parents bereaved by the violent deaths of their 12 to 28 year-old children: A randomized controlled trial. Death Studies 1998;22:1–27.Google ScholarPubMed
41.Salloum, A, Avery, L, McClain, RP: Group psychotherapy for adolescent survivors of homicide victims: A pilot study. J Amer Acad Child Adol Psychiat 2001;40:1261–1267.Google Scholar
42.Rynearson, EK, Favell, JL, Gold, R, Prigerson, H: Bereavement intervention with incarcerated youth. J Amer Acad Child Adol Psychiat 2001;41:893–894.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
43.Shear, MK, Frank, E, Foa, E, et al. : Traumatic grief treatment: A pilot study. Amer J Psychiat 2001;158:1506–1508.Google Scholar
44.Mawson, D, Marks, I, Ramm, E, Stern, RS: Guided mourning for morbid grief: A controlled study. Brit J Psychiat 1981;138:185–193.Google Scholar
45.Sireling, L, Cohen, D, Marks, I: Guided mourning for morbid grief: A controlled replication. Behav Ther 1988;19:121–132.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
46.Schut, H, Stroebe, MS, van den Bout, JT: The Efficacy of Bereavement Interventions: Determining Who Benefits. In: Stroebe, MS, Hansson, RO, Stroebe, W, Schut, H (eds), Handbook of Bereavement Research. Washington, DC:American Psychological Association, 2001, pp 705–738.Google Scholar
47.Buckley, T, Blanchard, E, Hickling, E: A prospective examination of delayed onset post-traumatic stress disorder secondary to motor vehicle accidents. J Abnorm Psychol 1996;105:617–625.Google Scholar
48.Ehlers, A, Mayou, R, Bryant, B: Psychological predictors of chronic posttraumatic stress disorder after motor vehicle accidents. J Abnorm Psychol 1998;107:508–519.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
49.Bramsen, I, Dirkzwager, A, van der Ploeg, H: Predeployment personality traits and exposure to trauma as predictors of post-traumatic stress symptoms: A prospective study of former peacekeepers. Amer J Psychiat 2000;157:1115–1119.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
50.Harvey, AG, Bryant, RA: The relationship between acute stress disorder and posttraumatic stress disorder: A prospective evaluation of motor vehicle accident survivors. J Consult Clin Psychol 1998;66:507–512.Google Scholar
51.Harvey, AG, Bryant, RA: Two-year prospective evaluation of the relationship between acute stress disorder and posttraumatic stress disorder following mild traumatic brain injury. Amer J Psychiat 2000;157:626–628.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
52.Solomon, Z, Laor, N, Weiler, D, Muller, UF: The psychological impact of the Gulf War: A study of acute stress in Israeli evacuees. Arch Gen Psychiat 1993;50:320–321.Google Scholar
53.Foa, EB, Hearst-Ikeda, D, Perry, KJ: Evaluation of a brief cognitive-behavioral program for the prevention of chronic post-traumatic stress disorder in recent assault victims. J Consult Clin Psychol 1995;63:948–955.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
54.Bryant, RA, Harvey, AG, Dang, S, et al. :Treatment of acute stress disorder: A comparison of cognitive-behavioral therapy and supportive counseling. J Consult Clin Psychol 1998;66:862–866.Google Scholar