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“Never Let a Good Crisis Go to Waste”: Can International Law Seize the Advantage?
Published online by Cambridge University Press: 03 March 2022
Extract
Some international crises are circumscribed, others are more diffuse, sometimes of varying intensity depending on the region. But, at the end of the day, all regions might be impacted according to an uncertain timetable. This is the case, for example, with terrorism, cybersecurity, the migration crisis, and the climate crisis, which is one aspect of environmental damage that intersects with the health crisis. Some are latent and marked by sudden outbreaks, such as terrorism or the Islamic State's criminal operations. Others are set to worsen, such as the migration crisis, which today is probably small compared to what it will become. We must also think about financial or economic crises, cybersecurity breaches, misuse of new technologies and social networks, and, importantly, the painful experience of the January 2021 democratic crisis in the United States. But the current COVID-19 health crisis is the crisis that occupies everyone's mind today.
- Type
- Twenty-Third Annual Grotius Lecture on International Law
- Information
- Copyright
- Copyright © The Author(s), 2022. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of The American Society of International Law.
Footnotes
Yves Daudet of the Sorbonne Law School and discussant Hannah Buxbaum of Indiana University provided the Twenty-Third Annual Grotius Lecture on Thursday, March 25, 2021, at 10:00 a.m.*
*
This lecture will also be published in the American University International Law Review (AUILR), forthcoming 2021. Note for readers: this lecture reflects the style conventions of the AUILR as it is published in both publications.
References
1 See e.g. Les États-Unis estiment la Russie « probablement » à l'origine de la cyberattaque dont ils ont été victimes [The United States considers Russia “probably” at the origin of the cyberattack of which they were victims], Le Monde (Jan. 6, 2021, 07:21 AM), lemonde.fr/pixels/article/2021/01/06/les-etats-unis-estiment-la-russie-probablement-a-l-origine-de-la-cyberattaque-dont-ils-ont-ete-victimes_6065309_4408996.html.
2 See Elizabeth Piper & Kate Holton "We Need More": UN Joins Criticism of G7 Vaccine Pledge, Reuters (Jun. 12, 2021, 12:48 AM), https://www.reuters.com/business/healthcare-pharmaceuticals/g7-donate-1-billion-covid-19-vaccine-doses-poorer-countries-2021-06-10 (noting the number of vaccine doses needed to fully vaccinate the world's population exceeds).
3 See Aisling Irwin, What Will it Take to Vaccinate the World Against COVID-19, Nature (Mar. 25, 2021), https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-021-00727-3 (noting the slow process for manufacturing the vaccines and the necessary collaboration between different entities).
4 COVID-19 : des millions de vaccins AstraZeneca inutilisés aux États-Unis [COVID-19: Millions of Unused AstraZeneca Vaccines in the United States), Franceinfo (Mar. 15, 2021 11:51 AM), https://www.francetvinfo.fr/sante/maladie/coronavirus/vaccin/covid-19-des-millions-de-vaccins-astrazeneca-inutilises-aux-etats-unis_4333883.html.
5 Marcelo G. Kohen, Article 2, paragraphe 1, in La Charte des Nations Unies, commentaire article par article [Charter of the United Nations, Commentary Article by Article] 399 (Jean-Pierre Cot et al., eds., Economica, 3d ed., 2005).
6 This thesis sees sovereignty as it is exercised today as an outdated concept in today's globalized society and as an obstacle to the real development of an international law-based society. Monique Chemillier Gendreau has developed this idea in her various works critical of voluntarism. See Monique Chemillier Gendreau, Droit international et démocratie mondiale: Les raisons d'un échec [International Law and Global Democracy: The Reasons for Failure] 48–61 (Textuel, Paris, 2002); see generally Monique Chemillier Gendreau, Humanité et souverainetés, Essai sur la fonction du droit international (La découverte, Paris 1995) ; see also Monique Chemillier Gendreau, De la guerre à la communauté universelle. Entre droit et politique [From War to Universal Community: Between Law and Politics] 107–19 (Fayard, Paris, 2013). Distrust of sovereignty was one of the main themes in the work of Georges Scelle (1878-1961). See generally Olivier de Frouville, Une conception démocratique du droit international [Democratic Conception of International Law] 39 Revue Européenne des Sciences Sociales 101–44 (2001); id at 110–22, 142–44 (exploring the theses of Georges Scelle and other authors on this question). Charles-Albert Morand, La souveraineté, un concept dépassé à l'heure de la mondialisation, in L'ordre juridique international, un système en quête d'équité et d'universalité: liber amicorum Georges Abi-Saab [The International Legal System in Quest of Equity and Universality: liber amicorum Georges Abi-Saab] 53–175 (Laurence Boisson de Chazournes & Vera Gowlland-Debbas eds., Nijhoff 2001). For a political science view, see Bertrand Badie, Un monde sans souveraineté, les États entre ruse et responsabilité [A World Without Sovereignty, States Between Ruse and Responsibility] (Fayard 1999).
7 See generally Theodor Meron, The Humanization of International Law (Nijhoff 2006).
8 See Diana Schoder, Is A Globalized World A Less Equal World, Am. Econ. Ass'n (June 15, 2018), https://www.aeaweb.org/research/globalization-income-inequality-trade-policy (discussing the growing economic inequality that comes with globalization).
9 See François Bourguignon, Inequality and Globalization: How the Rich Get Richer as the Poor Catch Up, 95 Foreign Aff. 11, 11, 14 (2016) (furthering discussion on globalization and inequality).
10 See Douglas Broom, Coronavirus Has Exposed the Digital Divide Like Never Before, World Econ. F. (Apr. 22, 2020), https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2020/04/coronavirus-covid-19-pandemic-digital-divide-internet-data-broadband-mobbile (exploring the inequalities relating to internet access and COVID-19).
11 Cf. Hyea Won Lee, Addressing the Digital Divide and Inequality: A Road to Equitable COVID-19 Vaccine Delivery, World Bank Blogs: Digital Dev. (June 2, 2021), https://blogs.worldbank.org/digital-development/addressing-digital-divide-and-inequality-road-equitable-covid-19-vaccine (focusing on how to address the COVID-19 inequalities).
12 See Umair Irfan, Why are Rich Countries Still Monopolizing COVID-19 Vaccines?, Vox (Nov. 9, 2021), https://www.vox.com/22759707/covid-19-vaccine-gap-covax-rich-poor-countries-boosters (reporting on vaccine distribution inequality).
13 See id. (recognizing the steps being taken to cure the vaccine inequity by donations).
14 Barcelona Traction, Light & Power Co. (Belg. v. Spain), Judgment, 1970 I.C.J. 3, ¶ 33 (Feb. 5). Jurists like to question the legal existence of the term “international community.” See e.g. Hamza Karcic, Why an ‘International Community’ Does Not Exist, Newsweek (May 18, 2021, 06:30 AM), https://www.newsweek.com/why-international-community-does-not-exist-opinion-1592237.
15 Cf., Federico Andreu Guzman, International Law and the Fight Against Impunity: A Practitioners Guide, Int'l Comm'n Jurists 42, 45, https://www.un.org/sexualviolenceinconflict/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/report/auto-draft/Universal-Fight-against-impunity-PG-no7-comp-Publications-Practitioners-guide-series-2015-ENG.pdf (underscoring that the rule of law is necessary in combatting impunity).
16 Edith Brown Weiss, Establishing Norms in a Kaleidoscopic Word, in 396 Recueil des cours de l'Académie de droit international de la Haye [Collected Courses Hague Acad. Int'l L.] 83 (Nijhoff 2019).
17 See Martti Koskenniemi, The Fate of Public International Law: Between Technique and Politics, 70 Mod. L. Rev. 1, 1 (2007) (arguing that removing the political context from international law minimizes how the same rules and institutions can differ at the international and domestic levels).
18 For insights on the utility of international law and cooperation in overcoming crises, see Anne van Aaken, Is International Law Conducive to Preventing Looming Disasters?, 7 Glob. Pol'y 81, 81 (2016) (pointing to a series of “looming disasters” that set the stage for traditional cooperation among states).
19 See, e.g., id. at 84, where the Security Council used its authority during the 2014 Ebola outbreak in Africa to overcome state consent and call on states to contain the disease.
20 But cf. U.N. GAOR, 74th Sess., 11th plen. mtg., U.N. Doc. GA/12198 (Sept. 28, 2019) (tempering the need for multilateral cooperation with the bedrock principle of respect for state sovereignty).
21 See van Aaken, supra note 18, at 81 (recognizing that a myriad of crises requires international cooperation due to their inherent transnationality).
22 See Pierre-Marie Dupuy, Amazonie: Le droit international en vigueur apporte des réponses substantielles [Amazon: Current International Law Provides Substantial Answers], 16 Braz. J. Int'l L. 3 (2019).
23 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, Dec. 10, 1982, 1833 U.N.T.S. 397 §3 (allowing innocent passage in the territorial sea).
24 See, e.g., Sandra B. Zellmer, Mitigating Malheur's Misfortunes: The Public Interest in the Public's Public Lands, 31 Geo. Env't. L. Rev. 509, 512 (2019) (interpreting the public trust doctrine as placing an affirmative obligation on the U.S. government to protect the public's interest in public lands).
25 See Dupuy, supra note 22; see also Pierre Marie Dupuy & Jorge E. Viñuales, Introduction au droit international de l'environnement [Introduction to International Environmental Law] 85–8 (Bruylant 2015).
26 Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons, Advisory Opinion, 1996 I.C.J. 226, ¶ 29 (July 8).
27 See Charter of Economic Rights and Duties of States, U.N.G.A. Res. A/Res/3281(XXIX) 12 Dec. 1974, ch. 1, art. 2.
28 See Paige Mason, Inadequacies of the Amazon Fund: Evaluating Brazil's Sovereignty in the Context of Promising Market Mechanisms and the Need for International Oversight to Protect the Amazon Rainforest, 13 Touro Int'l L. Rev. 116, 130 (2010) (describing Brazil's assertion to its environmental sovereignty in the face of the unrestricted burning and logging of the Amazon rainforest). But see Charter of Economic Rights and Duties of States, ch. 1, art. 30 (describing the affirmative duty of states to protect the environment notwithstanding the respect for sovereignty).
29 See generally Sandrine Maljean-Dubois, Le droit international de la biodiversité [International Biodiversity Law] in 407 Recueil des cours de l'Académie de droit international de la Haye [Collected Courses Hague Acad. Int'l L.] 147–542 (Nijhoff 2020).
30 U.N. GAOR, 74th Sess., 11th plen. mtg., U.N. Doc. GA/12198 (Sept. 28, 2019).
31 See e.g. Géraud de Lassus St-Geniès, Why the ILC Should Not Seek to Codify Climate Law, in Debating Climate Law 50, 50–53 (Benoit Mayer & Alexander Zahar eds., 2021) (contending that ILC codification of climate law is ill-advised because of the impracticalities of identifying consistent evidence of “general practices accepted as law.”).
32 See Peter H. Sand, Climate Law and Its Skeptics: Whither Protection of the Atmosphere, 51 Env't Pol'y & L. 5, 6–7 (2021) (describing how influential U.N. member states thwarted codification of atmospheric draft guidelines).
33 See Anne-Thida Norodom & Philippe Lagrange, Travaux de la Commission du droit international et de la sixième commission [Work of the International Law Commission and of the Sixth Commission], 57 Annuaire Français de Droit International 357 (2011).
34 See generally Security Council Resolution 827, UN Doc. S/RES 827 (25 May 1993) (establishing the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia); Security Council Resolution 955, U.N. Doc. S/RES/955 (8 Nov. 1994) (establishing the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda).
35 See U.N. Doc. S/RES/780 (6 Oct. 1992); U.N. Doc. S/RES/771 (13 Aug. 1992).
36 See Bruce Broomhall, International Justice and the International Criminal Court: Between Sovereignty and the Rule of Law 52–53, 56 (2004) (discussing duties to prosecute and principles of international criminal law).
37 See Marta Cartabia, The Legacy of Sovereignty in Italian Constitutional Debate, in Sovereignty in Transition 314–15 (2006) (discussing EU states’ loss of autonomous power); Consolidated Version of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union art. 3, 4, Oct. 26, 2012, 2012 O.J. (C 326) 51 [hereinafter TFEU].
38 Jose E. Alvarez, The W.H.O. in the Age of the Coronavirus, 114 Am. J. Int'l L. 578, 579–84 (2020); Eyal Benvenisti, The W.H.O.—Destined to Fail?: Political Cooperation and the COVID-19 Pandemic, 114 Am. J. Int'l L. 588, 595–97 (2020).
39 Alvarez, supra note 38, at 579–84; Benvenisti, supra note 38, at 595–97.
40 Stéphane Foucart, Origines du SARS-CoV-2 : la Chine refuse toute nouvelle enquête internationale [Origins of SARS-CoV-2: China Refuses Any New International Investigation], Le Monde (Aug. 14, 2021), https://www.lemonde.fr/planete/article/2021/08/14/origines-du-sars-cov-2-la-chine-refuse-toute-nouvelle-enquete-internationale_6091399_3244.html.
41 Simon Leplâtre, La Chine pointe les importations alimentaires comme une source de contamination possible [China Points to Food Imports as a Possible Source of Contamination], Le Monde (Jan. 30, 2021), https://www.lemonde.fr/international/article/2021/01/30/la-chine-pointe-les-importations-alimentaires-comme-une-source-de-contamination-possible_6068201_3210.html.
42 See Peter G. Danchin et al., The Pandemix Paradox in International Law , 114 Am. J. Int'l L. 598, 604 (finding that responses to COVID-19 “purported[ly] in defense of sovereignty ultimately risks undermining it”).
43 See Michael R. Mason, The New Accountability: Environmental Responsibility Across Borders 26–27 (2005) (suggesting that state discretion is not unlimited with respect to control of borders); see Bill McKibben, There are No Borders in a Climate Crisis, New Yorker: Annals of a Warming Planet (Mar. 31, 2021), https://www.newyorker.com/news/annals-of-a-warming-planet/there-are-no-borders-in-a-climate-crisis (discussing the practical limits of borders’ functionality in a climate crisis).
44 See Jean Chemnick & Mark K. Matthews, Trump's Border Wall Highlights Climate-Migration Connection, Sci. Am. (Jan. 22, 2019), https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/trumps-border-wall-highlights-the-climate-migration-connection (suggesting that barriers are ineffective tools in solving migration issues).
45 See Vincent Chetail, Crisis Without Borders: What Does International Law Say About Border Closure in the Context of COVID-19, 2 Frontiers Pol. Sci. 1, 2 (2020) (suggesting that state discretion is not unlimited with respect to control of borders); see The Right to Equality and Non-Discrimination, Icelandic Hum. Rts. Ctr., https://www.humanrights.is/en/human-rights-education-project/human-rights-concepts-ideas-and-fora/substantive-human-rights/the-right-to-equality-and-non-discrimination (last visited Nov. 1, 2021) (explaining that the principle of non-discrimination encompasses equality, requiring that people be “treated equally before the law, without discrimination”).
46 See Press Release, General Assembly, Stronger Multilateralism Key to Tackling Tough Global Challenges but not at Expense of State Sovereignty, Several Speakers Warn as General Assembly Debate Continues, U.N. Press Release GA/12198 (Sept. 28, 2019) [hereinafter Stronger Multilateralism] (emphasizing strong multilateralism as critical to addressing global challenges like climate change and poverty); Multilateral Cooperation, A Key for Migration Governance, Int'l Org. for Migration, https://rosanjose.iom.int/site/en/blog/multilateral-cooperation-key-migration-governance (last visited Nov. 1, 2021) (discussing the use of regional conferences to facilitate cooperation and communication between countries and agencies to facilitate migration activity).
47 See President Biden's Executive Actions on Immigration, Ctr. for Migration Stud., https://cmsny.org/biden-immigration-executive-actions (last visited Nov. 1, 2021) (listing the various actions President Joe Biden took to reverse Former President Donald Trump's immigration laws, such as ending the discriminatory bans on entry and establishing an interagency task force to reunite separated families).
48 See Press Release, H. Comm. on the Judiciary, Judiciary Comm. Releases Rep. on Trump Admin.'s Fam. Separation Pol'y (Oct. 29, 2020), https://judiciary.house.gov/news/documentsingle.aspx?DocumentID=3442 (describing Former President Trump's family separation policy as cruel and “determined to go to unthinkable extremes”).
49 See Amrita Narlikar, The Malaise of Multilateralism and How to Manage It, ORF (Jan. 23, 2020), https://www.orfonline.org/expert-speak/the-malaise-of-multilateralism-and-how-to-manage-it (discussing the issues that have impacted multilateralism and setting forth solutions, including recreating the narrative surrounding multilateralism and having difficult conversations about values).
50 See Robert A. Manning, Trump's Globalism Is a Caricature of Multilateralism, Foreign Pol'y (Oct. 2, 2019, 6:01 PM), https://foreignpolicy.com/2019/10/02/trumps-globalism-is-a-caricature-of-multilateralism (discussing how common global problems require global action despite Former President Trump's calls against multilateralism).
51 See Stephanie Bocking, Biden Marks the United States’ Symbolic Return to Paris Climate Agreement, Edge Hill Univ., Jan. 22, 2021, https://www.edgehill.ac.uk/news/2021/01/biden-marks-the-united-states-symbolic-return-to-paris-climate-agreement.
52 See Cara Korte, What the U.S. is Committing to as It Rejoins the Paris Climate Accords — And Why It Matters, CBS News (Feb. 19, 2021), https://www.cbsnews.com/news/paris-agreement-united-states-commitment (reporting comments from Former U.S. Special Envoy on Climate Change Todd Stern about U.S. setting an example for other countries and taking the lead on more ambitious climate action).
53 Brady Dennis, In Swing Through Europe, John Kerry Aims to Boost Climate Action, Wash. Post (Mar. 10, 2021), https://www.washingtonpost.com/climate-environment/2021/03/10/kerry-climate-europe.
54 See G7: Merkel Welcomes a “Reinforced Multilateralism” by the Election of Biden, Ltd. Times (Feb. 19, 2021), https://newsrnd.com/news/2021-02-19-%0A---g7--merkel-welcomes-a-"reinforced-multilateralism"-by-the-election-of-biden%0A--.HJgRsQD6WO.html.
55 See Michael J. Abramowitz, Freedom in the World, 2018 Freedom House 1 (providing several examples of countries whose governments are facing the threat of authoritarianism, such as Turkey and Hungary).
56 See id. at 1–2 (explaining that “the spread of antidemocratic practices around the world…[pose] economic and security risks”).
57 See Steve Holland et al., Trump Summoned Supporters to “Wild” Protest, and Told Them to Fight. They Did, Reuters (Jan. 6, 2021), https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-election-protests/trump-summoned-supporters-to-wild-protest-and-told-them-to-fight-they-did-idUSKBN29B24S.
58 See Jeremy Cliffe, Elections in Brazil, Turkey and Hungary Will Test Whether Democracy Can Beat Authoritarians, Fin. Rev. (Nov. 26, 2021), https://www.afr.com/policy/foreign-affairs/why-strongmen-are-clinging-to-power-20211123-p59bck (explaining that many democracies across the world are in danger, including Brazil, Turkey, Hungry, Poland, India, and Mexico).
59 See Anna Grzymala-Busse et al., Global Populisms and Their Challenges 1 (2020) (explaining how populist parties and politicians threaten democracy by undermining formal institutions, marginalizing certain groups, and eroding the legitimacy of the press and political opposition).
60 See Angela Dewan, Global Populism Will Miss Donald Trump, But the Movement is Still Alive and Kicking, CNN (Nov. 27, 2020), https://edition.cnn.com/2020/11/27/world/trump-election-defeat-populism-global-intl (discussing the rise of populism among regular citizens, triggered by events like 2007-2008 financial crisis in the U.S. and the 2015 refugee crisis in Europe).
61 See Patrick Chamorel, Macron Versus the Yellow Vests, 30 J. Democracy 47, 48 (2019) (explaining how the Yellow Vest movement developed from workers protesting a tax on diesel fuel that they found unjust and representative of a government for privileged elites); See David Smith et al., Inside Out: The UK Press, Brexit and Strategic Populist Ventriloquism, 26 Eur. J. Commc'n, 21, 26-27 (2021) (explaining how the organizers behind the anti-EU campaigns used populist rhetoric to gain support).
62 See Iffat Idris, Analysis of the Arab Spring 2 (2016) (explaining that electronic information networks and social media mobilized protesters across all the countries involved in the Arab Spring by spreading awareness of the issues and helped to sustain their protest movements).
63 See Eda Keremoglu & Nils B. Weidmann, How Dictators Control the Internet: A Review Essay, 53 Comp. Pol. Stud. 1690, 1691 (2020) (explaining that the control of public and private information, which is now challenged by the internet and advancing technology, has always been an important part of authoritarian rule to prevent opposition, spy on dissenters, and quash sensitive information).
64 Same Varayudej, A Right to Democracy in International Law: Its Implications for Asia, 12 Ann. Surv. Int'l & Compar. L. 1, 11 (2006) (discussing the development of “democratic intervention” and its interplay with principles of sovereignty).
65 G.A. Res. 2625 (XXV), at 121, 123 (Oct. 24, 1970) (codifying principles of “friendly relations and co-operation among States”).
66 See Linos-Alexandre Sicilianos, L'ONU et la démocratisation de l’État 14 (Pedone 2000).
67 See id. at 283–87 (explaining that human rights have influenced the approach to intervention, thus reshaping the concept of sovereignty).
68 Summit for Democracy Summary of Proceedings, Whitehouse.org (Dec. 23, 2021), https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/statements-releases/2021/12/23/summit-for-democracy-summary-of-proceedings (“President Biden convened world leaders in the first-ever Summit for Democracy, a gathering that spurred dialogue and initiated concrete action toward global democratic renewal”).
69 See Anita Prakash, Strengthening Global Governance & Multilateralism, ERIA (June 3, 2019), https://www.eria.org/news-and-views/strengthening-global-governance-multilateralism (last visited Oct. 25, 2021) (discussing the three major elements in global governance – the consensus, rules, and membership of multiple national governments – require a binding mode of interaction); Gareth Evans, Why Summits Still Matter, World Econ. F. (Nov. 25, 2014), https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2014/11/why-summits-still-matter (discussing the importance of continued international summits).
70 See Thorsten Benner, Multilateralism Needs Democracy, PeaceLab (Feb. 10, 2021), https://peacelab.blog/2021/02/multilateralism-needs-democracy (discussing how German government should put collaboration among democracies at the heart of the Alliance for Multilateralism).
71 See Kenneth Weisbrode, What Good are Multilateral Summits?, Diplomatic Courier (May 23, 2011), https://www.diplomaticourier.com/posts/what-good-are-multilateral-summits (discussing multilateral summits and intention to advance mutual agreement between states).
72 What is the “Alliance for Multilateralism”?, All. for Multilateralism, https://multilateralism.org/the-alliance (last visited Oct. 19, 2021).
73 About the Commission: League of Nations Codification Conference, Int'l L. Comm'n, https://legal.un.org/ilc/league.shtml (last visited Jan. 25, 2022).
74 See Raphaël Maurel, L’(in)activité du Conseil de sécurité face au COVID-19 : où est confinée la « communauté» internationale ? [The (In)activity of the Security Council in the face of COVID-19: Where is the International “Community” Confined?], 18 RDLF, 2020, at 1, http://www.revuedlf.com/droit-international/linactivite-du-conseil-de-securite-face-au-covid-19-ou-est-confinee-la-communaute-internationale.
75 Charles Michel, Statement by the President of the European Council at the UN General Assembly Special Session on COVID-19 (Mar. 12, 2020) (transcript available at https://eeas.europa.eu/delegations/un-new-york_en/89793/Statement%20by%20the%20President%20of%20the%20European%20Council%20at%20the%20UN%20General%20Assembly%20Special%20Session%20on%20COVID-19).
76 See generally Anne Peters, Animals in International Law, in 410 Recueil des cours de l'Académie de droit international de la Haye [Collected Courses Hague Acad. Int'l L.] 94 (Nijhoff 2020).
77 See Jennifer Billington, How has International Law Changed in the Last Decade?, Legal Reader (Jan. 28, 2020), https://www.legalreader.com/has-international-law-changed-in-last-decade (discussing the changes to international law in the last decade).
78 Casey D. Donahoe, Waiver of IP Protections for COVID-19 Vaccines Still Under Consideration at WTO, Nat'l L. Rev. (Aug. 24, 2021), https://www.natlawreview.com/article/waiver-ip-protections-covid-19-vaccines-still-under-consideration-wto (discussing conversation around waiving patent protections for COVID-19 vaccine).
79 See Emma Bowman & Ashish Valentine, Biden Backs Waiving International Patent Protections For COVID-19 Vaccines, NPR (May 5, 2021, 6:43 PM), https://www.npr.org/sections/coronavirus-live-updates/2021/05/05/993998745/biden-backs-waiving-international-patent-protections-for-covid-19-vaccines (discussing conversation around waiving patent protections for COVID-19 vaccine).
80 See Global Solution to COVID-19 in Sight, ‘We Sink or We Swim Together’ – WHO Chief, UN News (Sept. 21, 2020), https://news.un.org/en/story/2020/09/1072932 (discussing need for more cooperation between states to end COVID-19 pandemic); Sarah Ferguson, COVAX Mission Forges Ahead: Fighting the Vaccinate the World Against COVID-19, UNICEF (June 14, 2021), https://www.unicefusa.org/stories/covax-mission-forges-ahead-vaccinate-world-against-covid-19/38636 (discussing need for more cooperation between states to end COVID-19 pandemic).
81 See Weiss, supra note 16 at 398.