Hostname: page-component-7bb8b95d7b-5mhkq Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-09-06T15:00:37.859Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

A Light in Dark Places: Later Prehistoric Mortuary Activity in Caves in Scotland and Northern England

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  31 May 2024

BEN HUME Open the ORCID record for BEN HUME [Opens in a new window]  and
IAN ARMIT
BEN HUME
Affiliation:
Independent scholar. Email: benjamin.hume10@gmail.com
IAN ARMIT
Affiliation:
Department of Archaeology, University of York, York YO10 5DD, UK. Email: ian.armit@york.ac.uk
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Humans have utilised caves for funerary activities for millennia and their unique preservational conditions provide a wealth of evidence for treatments of the dead. This paper examines the evidence for funerary practices in the caves of Scotland and northern England from the Bronze Age to the Roman Iron Age (c. 2200 bc–ad 400) in the context of later prehistoric funerary ritual. Results suggest significant levels of perimortem trauma on human skeletal remains from caves relative to those from non-cave sites. We also observe a recurrent pattern of deposition involving inhumation of neonates in contrast to excarnation of older individuals.

Résumé

RÉSUMÉ

Une lumière en des lieux sombres: activité mortuaire de la fin de la Préhistoire dans les grottes d’Écosse et du Nord de l’Angleterre, par Ben Hume et Ian Armit

Les humains ont utilisé des grottes à des fins funéraires pendant des millénaires et leurs conditions de préservation uniques fournissent une abondance de données sur le traitement des morts. Cet article se penche sur les données concernant les pratiques funéraires à l’intérieur des grottes d’Écosse et du Nord de l’Angleterre entre l’âge du Bronze et l’âge du Fer Romain (c. 2200 bc–ad 400) dans le contexte des rites funéraires de la fin de la Préhistoire. Nos résultats montrent que les restes de squelettes humains provenant de grottes présentent d’importants niveaux de trauma perimortem par rapport aux squelettes provenant de sites extérieurs. Nous observons également un schéma récurrent de dépôt consistant, d’une part, en l’inhumation des nouveau-nés et, d’autre part, en l’excarnation des individus plus âgés.

Zusammenfassung

ZUSAMMENFASSUNG

Ein Licht an dunklen Orten: Bestattungsaktivitäten der jüngeren Vorgeschichte in Höhlen in Schottland und Nordengland, von Ben Hume und Ian Armit

Über Jahrtausende haben Menschen Höhlen für funerale Aktivitäten genutzt, deren einzigartige Erhaltungsbedingungen eine Fülle an Informationen zum Umgang mit den Toten liefern. In diesem Beitrag wird die Untersuchung von Belegen für Bestattungspraktiken in den Höhlen in Schottland und Nordengland von der Bronzezeit bis in die Römische Eisenzeit (ca. 2200 bc–ad 400) im Kontext des Bestattungsrituals der jüngeren Vorgeschichte vorgestellt. Die Ergebnisse deuten auf ein hohes Maß an perimortalen Traumata an menschlichen Skelettteilen aus Höhlen im Vergleich zu jenen von anderen Fundorten. Wir beobachten außerdem ein wiederkehrendes Deponierungsmuster, das Körperbestattungen von Neonaten im Gegensatz zur Entfleischung älterer Individuen umfasst

Resumen

RESUMEN

Una luz en la oscuridad: la actividad funeraria en cuevas durante la Prehistoria reciente en Escocia y el norte de Inglaterra, por Ben Hume e Ian Armit

Los seres humanos han utilizado las cuevas para desarrollar actividades funerarias durante milenios y sus condiciones únicas de preservación proporcionan una evidencia de gran riqueza en los aspectos relacionados con los tratamientos de los muertos. Este artículo examina la evidencia de prácticas funerarias en cuevas de Escocia y el norte de Inglaterra desde la Edad del Bronce hasta la Edad del Hierro y época romana (c. 2200 bc–ad 400) en el contexto de los rituales funerarios de la Prehistoria reciente. Los resultados sugieren niveles significantes de traumas perimorten en restos esqueléticos humanos procedentes de las cuevas en relación con aquellos procedentes de yacimientos que no son cuevas. De la misma manera, se observa un patrón recurrente de deposición que implica la inhumación de neonatos en contraste con el descarnado de individuos de mayor edad.

Keywords

Bronze AgeIron AgeRoman Iron AgeScotlandnorthern Englandperimortem traumafunerary practicescaves
Type
Research Article
Information
Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society , First View , pp. 1 - 19
Copyright
© The Author(s), 2024. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of The Prehistoric Society

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

BIBLIOGRAPHY

ARCHI UK. 2023. Archaeological sites, LiDAR and Old Maps. Online. ARCHI UK. Last Updated: 2023. https://www.archiuk.com/ [Accessed 24 February 2024]Google Scholar
Armit, I. 2020. Ritual violence and headhunting in Iron Age Europe. In Fagan, G., Fibiger, L. & Trundle, M, (eds), The Cambridge World History of Violence, 441–59. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,Google Scholar
Armit, I. 2022. Macarthur Cave, Oban, Argyll and Bute, Scotland, UK. Supplementary Information 142 in Patterson, N., Isakov, M., Booth, T., Büster, L., Fischer, C.-E. et al., Large scale migration into southern Britain at the End of the Bronze Age. Nature 601, 588–94. https://10.1038/s41586-021-04287-4 Google Scholar
Armit, I. & Büster, L. 2020. Darkness Visible: The Sculptor’s Cave, Covesea, from the Bronze Age to the Picts. Edinburgh: Society of Antiquaries of Scotland Google Scholar
Armit, I. & Ginn, V. 2007. Beyond the grave: human remains from domestic contexts in Iron Age Atlantic Scotland. Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 73, 113–34Google Scholar
Armit, I., Dunwell, A. & Hunter, F. 2002. The hill at the empire’s edge: recent work on Traprain Law. Transactions of the East Lothian Antiquarian and Field Naturalist’s Society 25, 1–11 Google Scholar
Armit, I., Schulting, R., Knüsel, C. & Shepherd, I. 2011. Death, decapitation and display? The Bronze and Iron Age human remains from the Sculptor’s Cave, Covesea, north-east Scotland. Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 77, 251–78Google Scholar
Armstrong, A. 1956. Report on the excavation of Ash Tree Cave, near Whitwell, Derbyshire, 1949 to 1957. Derbyshire Archaeological Journal 76, 57–64 Google Scholar
Barnes, F. 1970. Prehistoric pottery from Furness. Transactions of the Cumberland and Westmorland Antiquarian and Archaeological Society 70, 2–8 Google Scholar
Beckensall, S. 1976. The excavation of a rock shelter at Corby’s Crags, Edlingham. Archaeologia Aeliana 4, 11–16 Google Scholar
Bello, S., Wallduck, R., Dimitrijević, V., Živaljević, I. & Stringer, C. 2016. Cannibalism versus funerary defleshing and disarticulation after a period of decay: comparisons of bone modifications from four prehistoric sites. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 161 (4), 722–43Google ScholarPubMed
Benton, S. 1931. The Excavation of the Sculptor’s Cave, Covesea, Morayshire. Society of Antiquaries of Scotland 65, 177–216 Google Scholar
Bergsvik, K. & Skeates, R. 2012. Caves in Context: the cultural significance of caves and rockshelters in Europe. Oxford: Oxbow Books Google Scholar
Bergsvik, K. & Dowd, M. (eds). 2017. Caves and Ritual in Medieval Europe, ad 500–1500. Oxford: Oxbow Books Google Scholar
Birch, S. 2004. Evidence for Metalworking from Trench 1, Bone Passage – July 2004. http://www.high-pasture-cave.org/index.php/latest_finds/comments/73/ [Accessed 8 July 2021]Google Scholar
Birch, S. 2009. Latest Finds from the Fiskavaig Rock Shelter site. http://www.high-pasture-cave.org/index.php/latest_finds/comments/178/ [Accessed 7 July 2021]Google Scholar
Birch, S. & Mackenzie, J. forthcoming. High Pasture Cave: Ritual, memory and identity in the Iron Age of Skye. Oxford: Oxbow Books Google Scholar
Booth, T. 2022. Carsington Pasture Cave, Brassington, Derbyshire, England, UK, 51–3 in Patterson, N., Isakov, M., Booth, T., Büster, L., Fischer, C.-E. et al., Large scale migration into southern Britain at the end of the Bronze Age Nature 601, 588–94. https://10.1038/s41586-021-04287-4 Google Scholar
Bradley, R. 2019. The Prehistory of Britain and Ireland (2 edn). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Google Scholar
Bradley, R. 2000. An Archaeology of Natural Places. Abingdon: Routledge Google Scholar
Bramwell, D., Dalton, K., Drinkwater, J., Hassall, M., Lorimer, K. & Mackreth, D. 1983. Excavations at Poole’s Cavern, Buxton: an interim report. Derbyshire Archaeological Journa, 103, 47–74 Google Scholar
Branigan, K. & Dearne, M. 1991. A Gazetteer of Romano-British Cave Sites and Their Finds. Sheffield: Department of Archaeology and Prehistory, University of Sheffield Google Scholar
Brickley, M. & McKinley, J. 2004. Guidelines to the Standards for Recording Human Remains: IFA Paper 7. Southampton: BABAO, Department of Archaeology, University of Southampton Google Scholar
Bronk Ramsey, C., Higham, T., Owen, D., Pike, A. & Hedges, R. 2002. Radiocarbon dates from the Oxford AMS system: Archaeometry datelist 31. Archaeometry 44(1), 1–150 Google Scholar
Brück, J. 1999. Ritual and rationality: some problems of interpretation in European archaeology. European Journal of Archaeology 2(3), 313–44Google Scholar
Burgess, C. 1972. Goatscrag: a Bronze Age rock shelter cemetery in north Northumberland, with notes on other rock shelters and crag lines in the region. Archaeologia Aeliana 50, 15–69 Google Scholar
Büster, L. 2014. The Covesea Caves Project. Society of Antiquaries of Scotland. Last updated: 2014. http://www.socantscot.org/research-project/the-covesea-caves-project/ [Accessed 11 August 2021]Google Scholar
Büster, L. & Armit, I. 2019. The Covesea Caves Project: Fieldwork 2018 Data Structure Report. Bradford: unpublished report, University of Bradford Google Scholar
Büster, L., Warmenbol, E. & Mlekuž, D. (eds). 2019. Between Worlds: understanding ritual cave use in later prehistory. New York: Springer CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Canmore. 2022. National Record of the Historic Environment. CANMORE. https://canmore.org.uk/ [Accessed 7 May 2022]Google Scholar
Cameron, J., Arthurs, D., Cornhill, S., Morris, J. & Peterson, R. 2019. Human remains from Dunald Mill Hole, Nether Kellet, Lancashire, UK. Cave and Karst Science 48(1), 69–73 Google Scholar
Carr, G. & Knüsel, C. 1997. The ritual framework of excarnation by exposure as the mortuary practice of the early and middle Iron Ages of central southern Britain. In Gwilt, A. & Haslegrove, C. (eds), Reconstructing Iron Age Societies: new approaches to the British Iron Age, 167–73. Oxford: Oxbow Books Google Scholar
Chamberlain, A. 1999. Carsington Pasture Cave, Brassington, Derbyshire: a prehistoric burial site. CAPRA 1. http://web.archive.org/web/20090906184710/http://www.capra.group.shef.ac.uk/1/carsing.html [Accessed 2 August 2021]Google Scholar
Chamberlain, A. 2012. Caves and the funerary landscape of prehistoric Britain. In Moyes (ed.) 2021, 81–6Google Scholar
Chamberlain, A. 2021. Gazetteer of Caves, Fissures and Rock Shelters in Britain Containing Human Remains. University of Bristol Spelaeological Society. Last Updated: September 2021. https://caveburial.ubss.org.uk/ [Accessed 7 May 2022]Google Scholar
Chamberlain, A., Mason, E. & Williams, N. 2020. Radiocarbon dating of vertebrate remains from Bull Pit, Perryfoot, Derbyshire. Proceedings of the University of Bristol Spelaeological Society 28(2), 329–57Google Scholar
Childe, V.G. 1925. The Dawn of European Civilization. London: Trubner Google Scholar
Clarke, W.B. 1876. Notice of excavations in the Borness Cave in the summer of 1874. Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland 11, 305–9CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clarke, W.B. 1878. Final report on the Borness exploration. Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland 12, 669–81CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cree, J. 1909. Notice of the excavation of two caves, with remains of early Iron Age occupation, on the estate of Archerfield, Dirleton. Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland 43, 243–68CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Culver, D. & Pipan, T. 2019. The Biology of Caves and Other Subterranean Habitats (2 edn). Oxford: Oxford University Press Google Scholar
Cunliffe, B. 2018. The Ancient Celts (2 edn). Oxford: Oxford University Press Google Scholar
Dalaere, C. & Warmenbol, E. 2019. The watery way to the world of the dead: underwater excavations (old and new) at the Cave of Han-sur-Lesse, Belgium. In Büster et al. (eds) 2019, 137–64Google Scholar
Dearne, M. & Lord, T. 1998. The Romano-British Archaeology of Victoria Cave, Settle: researches into the site and its artefacts. Oxford: British Archaeological Report 273Google Scholar
Delannoy, J., David, B., Freslov, J., Mullet, R., GunaiKurnai Land and Waters Aboriginal Corporation., Green, H., Berthet, J., Petchey, F., Arnold, L., Wood, R., McDowell, M., Crouch, J., Mialanes, J., Ash, J. & Wong, V. 2020. Geomorphological context and formation history of Cloggs Cave: what was the cave like when people inhabited it? Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 33 (102461). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jasrep.2020.102461 Google Scholar
DECC = Department of the Environment, Climate and Communications. 2021. Coastal Erosion. https://www.gsi.ie/en-ie/geoscience-topics/natural-hazards/Pages/Coastal-Erosion.aspx [Accessed 25 May 2021]Google Scholar
Douglas, B. 2008. Climate to crania: science and the racialization of human difference. In Douglas, B. & Ballard, C. (eds), Foreign Bodies: Oceania and the science of race 1750–1940, 33–96. Canberra: ANU Press Google Scholar
Dowd, M. (ed.) 2016. Underground Archaeology: studies on human bones and artefacts from Ireland’s caves. Oxford: Oxbow Books Google Scholar
Dowd, M. & Hensey, R. (eds). 2016. The Archaeology of Darkness. Oxford: Oxbow Books Google Scholar
Dulias, K., Birch, S., Wilson, J., Justeau, P., Gandini, F., Flaquer, A., Soares, P., Richards, M., Pala, M. & Edwards, C. 2019. Maternal relationships within an Iron Age burial at the High Pasture Cave, Isle of Skye, Scotland. Journal of Archaeological Science 110, 1–30. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2019.104978 Google Scholar
Duncan, W. 2012. Biological distance analysis in contexts of ritual violence. In Martin, D., Harrod, R. & Perez, V. (eds), The Bioarchaeology of Violence, 251–75. Gainesville FL: University Press of Florida Google Scholar
Edensor, T. 2010. Walking in rhythms: place, regulation, style and the flow of experience. Visual Studies 25(1), 69–79 Google Scholar
Elster, E.S., Isetti, E., Robb, J. and Traverso, A. 2016. The Archaeology of Grotta Scaloria: ritual in Neolithic southeast Italy. Los Angeles CA: Monumenta Archaeologica 38Google Scholar
Elliot, J. 1862a. On the discovery of human and animal bones in the Heathery Burn Cave, near Stanhope. The Geologist 5, 34–7Google Scholar
Elliot, J. 1862b. Further discoveries in Heathery Burn Cave. The Geologist 5, 167–71Google Scholar
Falys, C. & Lewis, M. 2011. Proposing a way forward: a review of standardisation in the use of age categories and ageing techniques in osteological analysis. International Journal of Osteoarchaeology 21(6), 704–16Google Scholar
Fear, C. & O’Regan, H. 2019. The archaeology and human remains from Frank i’ th’ Rocks Cave, Derbyshire: a reassessment of the evidence. Cave and Karst Science 46(3), 99–106 Google Scholar
Fibiger, L. 2016. Osteoarchaeological analysis of human remains from 23 Irish caves. In Dowd (ed.) 2016, 3–38Google Scholar
Fitzpatrick-Matthews, K. 2006. Bronze Age Occupation. The Archaeology of Carnden Park, Cheshire. http://www.kmatthews.org.uk/carden/carden5.html [Accessed 30 July 2021]Google Scholar
Giles, M. 2020. Bog Bodies: face to face with the past. Manchester: Manchester University Press CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gilks, J. 1974. Early Bronze Age beakers from Pin Hole Cave, Creswell Crags. Derbyshire. Derbyshire Archaeological Journal 94, 8–15 Google Scholar
Gillieson, D. 2021. Caves: processes, development and management (2 edn). Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell Google Scholar
Gooney, D. 2015. Life and Death in Iron Age Orkney: an osteoarchaeological examination of the human skeletal remains from the burial ground at Knowe of Skea, Westray. Unpublished PhD thesis: University of EdinburghGoogle Scholar
Halcrow, S. & Tayles, N. 2008. The bioarchaeological investigation of childhood and social age: problems and prospects. Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory 15, 190–215 Google Scholar
Hallgren, F. 2011. Mesolithic skull depositions at Kanaljorden, Motala, Sweden. Current Swedish Archaeology 19, 244–6CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Harding, D. 2016. Death and Burial in Iron Age Britain. Oxford: Oxford University Press Google Scholar
Hedges, R., Housley, R., Bronk Ramsey, C. & van Klinken, G. 1991. Radiocarbon dates from the Oxford AMS system: Archaeometry datelist 13. Archaeometry 33(2), 279–96CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hedges, R., Housley, R., Bronk Ramsey, C. & van Klinken, G. 1995. Radiocarbon dates from the Oxford AMS system: Archaeometry datelist 19. Archaeometry 37(1), 195–214 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hedges, R., Pettitt, P., Bronk Ramsey, C. & van Klinken, G. 1998. Radiocarbon dates from the Oxford AMS System: Archaeometry datelist 26. Archaeometry, 40(2), 437–55Google Scholar
Hume, B. 2021. A Light in Dark Places: an examination of funerary practices in northern English and Scottish caves from the Bronze Age to the Roman Iron Age. Unpublished MA thesis: University of YorkGoogle Scholar
Knüsel, C. 2005. The physical evidence of warfare – subtle stigmata? In Thorpe, I. & Parker Pearson, M. (eds), Warfare, Violence and Slavery in Prehistory: proceedings of a Prehistoric Society conference at Sheffield University. Oxford: British Archaeological Report 1374, 49–66 Google Scholar
Layard, N. 1934. Evidence of human sacrifice in Seacliff Cave, Scotland. Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society of East Anglia 7(3), 399–401 Google Scholar
Leach, S. 2006. Going Underground: an anthropological and taphonomic study of human skeletal remains from caves and rock shelters in Yorkshire. Unpublished PhD thesis: University of WinchesterGoogle Scholar
Lord, T. & Howard, J. 2013. Cave archaeology. In Waltham, T. & Lowe, D. (eds), Caves and Karst of the Yorkshire Dales, 239–51. Great Hucklow: British Cave Research Association Google Scholar
Madgwick, R. 2008. Patterns in the modification of animal and human bones in Iron Age Wessex: revisiting the excarnation debate. In Davis, O., Sharples, N. & Waddington, K. (eds), Changing Perspectives on the First Millennium BC: proceedings of the Iron Age Research Student Seminar 2006, 99–118. Oxford: Oxbow Books Google Scholar
Manias, C. 2013. Race, Science, and the Nation: reconstructing the ancient past in Britain, France and Germany. Abingdon: Routledge CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Martinón-Torres, M., d’Errico, F., Santos, E., Álvaro Gallo, A., Amano, N., Archer, W. et al. 2021. Earliest known human burial in Africa. Nature 593, 95–100. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-021-03457-8 Google ScholarPubMed
McGregor, G. 2003. Excavation of an urned cremation burial of the Bronze Age, Glennan, Argyll and Bute. Edinburgh: Scottish Archaeological Internet Report 8. https://doi.org/10.5284/1017938 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Meethan, N. 2012. Walking the edges. Towards a visual ethnography of beachscapes. In Andrews, H. & Roberts, L. (eds), Liminal Landscapes: travel, experience and spaces in-between, 69–86. Abingdon: Routledge Google Scholar
Merriam, C. 1884. Notes on classical archaeology. American Antiquarian and Oriental Journal 6(3), 209–14Google Scholar
Millett, M. & Gowland, R. 2015. Infant and child burial rites in Roman Britain: a study from East Yorkshire. Britannia 46, 171–89CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Morris, S.V. 1937. Excavation of Torrs Cave, Kirkcudbright. Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland 71, 415–30Google Scholar
Morse, M. 1999. Craniology and the adoption of the Three-Age system in Britain. Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 65, 1–16 Google Scholar
Moyes, H, (ed.). 2012. Sacred Darkness: a global perspective on the ritual use of caves. Denver CO: University Press of Colorado Google Scholar
Mullins, E., Kennard, A., Woodward, B., Kieth, A. & Hinton, M. 1913. The ossiferous cave at Langwith. Derbyshire Archaeological Journal 35, 137–58Google Scholar
O’Regan, H., Bland, K., Evans, J., Holmes, M., McLeod, K., Philpott, R., Smith, I., Thorp, J. & Wilkinson, D. 2020. Rural life, Roman ways? Examination of Late Iron Age to late Romano-British burial practice and mobility at Dog Hole Cave, Cumbria. Britannia 51, 83–116 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Osterholtz, A., Swantek, L., Siver, N. & Davis, T. 2021. Struck down in the marketplace: bioarchaeological analysis of an individual recovered from the earthquake complex at Kourion. Journal of Archaeological Science Reports 40(A), 103203 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jasrep.2021.103203 Google Scholar
Palmer, L. & Lee, L. 1928. Frank-I’-th’-Rocks Cave and other northern caves in relation to the ice ages. Proceedings of the University of Bristol Speleological Society 2(3), 244–60Google Scholar
Parker Pearson, M. 2017. Dead and (un)buried: reconstructing attitudes to death in long-term perspective. In Bradbury, J. & Scarre, C. (eds), Engaging with the Dead: exploring changing human beliefs about death, mortality and the human body, 129–37. Oxford: Oxbow Books Google Scholar
Peterson, R. 2013. Excavations at Fairy Holes Caves, Whitewell, Lancashire, 2013, 1–18. Preston: University of Central Lancashire Google Scholar
Peterson, R. 2019a. Do caves have agency? In Büster et al. (eds) 2019, 29–44Google Scholar
Peterson, R. 2019b. Neolithic Cave Burials: agency, structure and environment. Manchester: Manchester University Press Google Scholar
Pugh, T. 2005. Caves and artificial caves in late Postclassic Maya ceremonial groups. In Prufer, K. & Brady, J. (eds), Stone Houses and Earth Lords: Maya religion in the cave context, 47–69. Denver CO: University of Colorado Press Google Scholar
Redfern, R. 2008. New evidence for Iron Age secondary burial practice and bone modification from Gussage All Saints and Maiden Castle (Dorset, England). Oxford Journal of Archaeology 27(3), 281–301 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Redfern, R. 2016. Injury and Trauma in Bioarchaeology: interpreting violence in past lives. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Google Scholar
Redfern, R. & Roberts, C. 2019. Trauma. In Buikstra, J. (ed.), Diagnosis of Pathological Conditions in Human Skeletal Remains (3 edn), 211–73. London: Academic Press CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Richardson, J.S. 1907. Notice of kitchen-midden deposits on North Berwick Law, and other antiquities in the vicinity of North Berwick; with a note of an undescribed sculptured stone, with symbols, in the island of Raasay. Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland 41, 428–30Google Scholar
Roberts, C. 2009. Human Remains in Archaeology: a handbook. York: Council for British Archaeology Google Scholar
Russell, M. 1987. Mortuary practices at the Krapina Neandertal site. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 72(3), 381–97Google ScholarPubMed
Ryder, P. 1974. The caves of the Beinn An Dubhaich area, Isle of Skye. Transactions of the British Cave Research Association 1(2), 101–26Google Scholar
Saville, A. & Hallén, Y. 1994. The ‘Obanian Iron Age’: human remains from the Oban cave sites, Argyll, Scotland. Antiquity 68, 715–23Google Scholar
Schulting, R. 2009. Report on human teeth from Sand. In Hardy, K. & Wickham-Jones, C. (eds), Mesolithic and Later Sites Around the Inner Sound, Scotland: the work of the Scotland’s First Settlers project 1998–2004, section 3.10. Edinburgh: Scottish Archaeological Internet Report 31. Available at https://archaeologydataservice.ac.uk/archiveDS/archiveDownload?t=arch-310-1/dissemination/pdf/sair31.pdf Google Scholar
Shapland, F. & Armit, I. 2012. The useful dead: bodies as objects in Iron Age and Norse Atlantic Scotland. European Journal of Archaeology 15(1), 98–116 Google Scholar
Sheridan, A., Armit, I., Reich, D., Booth, T., Bernados, R., Barnes, I. et al. 2019. A summary round-up list of Scottish archaeological human remains that have been sampled/analysed for DNA as of January 2019. Discovery and Excavation in Scotland 2019, 1–23 Google Scholar
Smith, I. 2012. Radio-carbon dating of bones from caves in Furness. Cumberland and Westmorland Antiquarian and Archaeological Society Newsletter 70, 1–16 Google Scholar
Stout, S. 2013. Cultural history, race, and peoples. In Tarlow, S. & Nilsson Stutz, L. (eds), The Oxford Handbook of the Archaeology of Death and Burial, 17–26. Oxford: Oxford University Press Google Scholar
Tolan-Smith, C. 2001. The Caves of Mid Argyll: an archaeology of human use. Edinburgh: Society of Antiquaries of Scotland Monograph 20Google Scholar
Tucker, F. 2010. Woven Into the Stuff of Other Men’s Lives: the treatment of the dead in Iron Age Atlantic Scotland. Unpublished PhD thesis, University of BradfordGoogle Scholar
Turner, W. 1895. On human and animal remains found in caves at Oban, Argyllshire. Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland 29, 410–38Google Scholar
Ubelaker, H. 2015. The concept of perimortem in forensic science. In McSweeney, K. & Gerdau-Radonić, K. (eds), Trends in Biological Anthropology 1, 95–9. Oxford: Oxbow Books Google Scholar
Ustinova, Y. 2013. To live in joy and die with hope: experiential aspects of ancient Greek mystery rites. Bulletin of the Institute of Classical Studies 56(2), 105–23Google Scholar
Wedel, V. & Galloway, A. 2013. Common circumstances of blunt force trauma. In Wedel, V. & Galloway, A. (eds), Broken Bones: anthropological analysis of blunt force trauma (2 edn), 91–125. Springfield IL: Charles C Thomas Google Scholar
Weiss-Krejci, E. 2013. The unburied dead. In Tarlow, S. & Nilsson Stutz, L. (eds), The Oxford Handbook of the Archaeology of Death and Burial, 281–302. Oxford: Oxford University Press Google Scholar
Whimster, R. 1981. Burial Practices in Iron Age Britain: a discussion and gazetteer of the evidence c.700 B.C.–A.D.43 Part 1. Oxford: British Archaeological Report 90Google Scholar
Wilford, S. 2016. Riddles in the Dark? The human use of caves during the 1st millennia BC and AD across the British Isles. Unpublished PhD thesis, Durham UniversityGoogle Scholar
Supplementary material: File

Hume and Armit supplementary material

Hume and Armit supplementary material
Download Hume and Armit supplementary material(File)
File 274.1 KB