Hostname: page-component-848d4c4894-5nwft Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-06-07T18:19:35.852Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Converting Threats into Opportunities

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  13 February 2006

Elinor Ostrom
Elinor Ostrom
Affiliation:
Indiana University
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Extract

James Madison contributed much to political science and to the art and science of governing democratic regimes. A major contribution was his recognition of the multiple threats facing the newly established Confederation (see, e.g., Dougherty 2001). Madison was willing to invest heavily in converting these threats into new opportunities. In his “Preface to Debates in the Convention” ([1984] 1840, 19), Madison reflected on the causes for alarm.James Madison Award lecture presented at the American Political Science Association (APSA) Annual Meeting, Washington, D.C., September 1, 2005. The author is appreciative of support from the Ford Foundation, the MacArthur Foundation, and the National Science Foundation and useful comments by Bill Blomquist, Eric Coleman, Sue Crawford, Joshua P. Hill, Marco Janssen, Robert Keohane, Mike McGinnis, Lesa B. Morrison, Amy Poteete, Mike Schoon, David Schwab, and Kenneth Shepsle on an initial draft of this paper. As always, I deeply appreciate Patty Lezotte's careful editing.

Type
THE 2005 JAMES MADISON AWARD LECTURE
Information
PS: Political Science & Politics , Volume 39 , Issue 1 , January 2006 , pp. 3 - 12
Copyright
© 2006 The American Political Science Association

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Agrawal, Arun. 2005. Environmentality: Technologies of Government and the Making of Subjects. Durham, NC: Duke University Press.Google Scholar
Ahn, T. K., Elinor Ostrom, and James Walker. 2003. “Heterogeneous Preferences and Collective Action.” Public Choice 117(3–4): 295–314.Google Scholar
Alchian, Armen A. 1950. “Uncertainty, Evolution, and Economic Theory.” Journal of Political Economy 58(3): 211–221.Google Scholar
Alford, John R., and John R. Hibbing. 2004. “The Origin of Politics: An Evolutionary Theory of Political Behavior.” Perspectives on Politics 2(4): 707–723.Google Scholar
Alker, Hayward A. 2005. “ On Curricular Perestroika: Seven Principles of Methodological Pluralism.” In Perestroika! The Raucous Revolution in Political Science, ed. Kristen Renwick Monroe. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Allen, Barbara. 2005. Tocqueville, Covenant, and the Democratic Revolution: Harmonizing Earth with Heaven. Lanham, MD: Lexington Books.Google Scholar
Almond, Gabriel A., and Stephen J. Genco. 1977. “Clouds, Clocks, and the Study of Politics.” World Politics 29(4): 489–522.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Alston, Lee J. 2005. “The ‘Case’ for Case Studies in Political Economy.” The Political Economist 12(4): 1, 8, 10.Google Scholar
Alt, James E., Margaret Levi, and Elinor Ostrom, eds. 1999. Competition and Cooperation: Conversations with Nobelists about Economics and Political Science. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.Google Scholar
Alt, James E., and Kenneth A. Shepsle. 1998. “Rules, Restrictions, Constraints: Structure and Process in the New Institutional Economics.” Journal of Institutional and Theoretical Economics 154(4): 735–742.Google Scholar
Bates, Robert, Avner Grief, Margaret Levi, Jean-Laurent Rosenthal, and Barry Weingast. 1998. Analytical Narratives. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Berkes, Fikret, J. Colding, and Carl Folke. 2003. Navigating Social-Ecological Systems: Building Resilience for Complexity and Change. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Black, Duncan. 1948. “The Decisions of a Committee Using a Special Majority.” Econometrica 16(4): 1181–1206.Google Scholar
Blomquist, William. 1992. Dividing the Waters: Governing Groundwater in Southern California. Oakland, CA: ICS Press.Google Scholar
Blomquist, William, Edella Schlager, Shui Yan Tang, and Elinor Ostrom. 1994. “ Regularities from the Field and Possible Explanations.” In Rules, Games, and Common-Pool Resources, eds. Elinor Ostrom, Roy Gardner, and James Walker. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 301–316.Google Scholar
Boyd, Robert, and Peter J. Richerson. 1985. Culture and the Evolutionary Process. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Busemeyer, Jerome R., and In Jae Myung. 1992. “An Adaptive Approach to Human Decision Making: Learning Theory, Decision Theory, and Human Performance.” Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 121(2): 177–194.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Camerer, Colin F. 2003. Behavioral Game Theory: Experiments in Strategic Interaction. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Campbell, Donald T. 1975. “‘Degrees of Freedom’ and the Case Study.” Comparative Political Studies 8(2): 178–193.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Campbell, Donald T., Julian C. Stanley, and N. L. Gage. 1966. Experimental and Quasi-Experimental Designs for Research. Chicago: Rand McNally.Google Scholar
Commons, John R. 1968 [1924]. Legal Foundations of Capitalism. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.Google Scholar
Coppedge, Michael. 1999. “Thickening Thin Concepts and Theories: Combining Large N and Small in Comparative Politics.” Comparative Politics 31(4): 465–476.Google Scholar
Cosmides, Leda, and John Tooby. 1994. “Better than Rational: Evolutionary Psychology and the Invisible Hand.” American Economic Review 84(2): 327–332.Google Scholar
Cox, James. 2004. “How to Identify Trust and Reciprocity.” Games and Economic Behavior 46: 260–281.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cox, James, and Vjollca Sadiraj. 2004. “Direct Tests of Models of Social Preferences and a New Model.” Economics Lab Working Paper. Tucson: University of Arizona.Google Scholar
Crawford, Sue E. S., and Elinor Ostrom. 2005. “A Grammar of Institutions.” In Understanding Institutional Diversity, ed. Elinor Ostrom. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 137–174. Originally published in American Political Science Review 89(3) (1995): 582–600.Google Scholar
Dahl, Robert. 1961. “The Behavioral Approach to Political Science: An Epitaph for a Monument to a Successful Protest.” American Political Science Review 55: 763–772.Google Scholar
Dahrendorf, Ralf. 1959. Class and Class Conflict in Industrial Societies. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
Dawes, Robyn M., John M. Orbell, Randy Simmons, and Alphons van de Kragt. 1986. “Organizing Groups for Collective Action.” American Political Science Review 80(4): 1171–1185.Google Scholar
Dougherty, Keith. 2001. Collective Action under the Articles of Confederation. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Dryzek, John, and Christian List. 2003. “Social Choice Theory and Deliberative Democracy: A Reconciliation.” British Journal of Political Science 33: 1–28.Google Scholar
Farr, James, John Dryzek, and Stephen Leonard, eds. 1995. Political Science in History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Faysse, Nicolas. 2005. “Coping with the Tragedy of the Commons: Game Structure and Design of Rules.” Journal of Economic Surveys 19(2): 239–261.Google Scholar
Flyvbjerg, Bent. 2001. Making Social Science Matter: Why Social Inquiry Fails and How It Can Succeed Again. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Frohlich, Norman, Joe Oppenheimer, and Anja Kurki. 2004. “Modeling Other-Regarding Preferences and an Experimental Test.” Public Choice 119(1–2): 91–117.Google Scholar
Frohlich, Norman, Joe A. Oppenheimer, and Oran Young. 1971. Political Leadership and Collective Goods. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Geddes, Barbara. 2004. Paradigms and Sand Castles: Theory Building and Research Design in Comparative Politics. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gellar, Sheldon. 2005. Democracy in Senegal: Tocquevillian Analytics in Africa. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.Google Scholar
Gibson, Clark, Krister Andersson, Elinor Ostrom, and Sujai Shivakumar. 2005. The Samaritan's Dilemma: The Political Economy of Development Aid. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Gibson, Clark, Margaret McKean, and Elinor Ostrom, eds. 2000. People and Forests: Communities, Institutions, and Governance. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Google Scholar
Gibson, Clark C., John T. Williams, and Elinor Ostrom. 2005. “Local Enforcement and Better Forests.” World Development 33(2): 273–284.Google Scholar
Giddens, Anthony. 1979. Central Problems in Social Theory: Action, Structure, and Contradiction in Social Analysis. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Gigerenzer, Gerd, and Reinhard Selten, eds. 2001. Bounded Rationality: The Adaptive Toolbox. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gigerenzer, Gerd, and Peter M. Todd. 1999. Simple Heuristics that Make Us Smart. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Ginsberg, Benjamin, Theodore Lowi, and Margaret Weir. 2003. We the People: An Introduction to American Politics, 4th ed. New York: W. W. Norton.Google Scholar
Granato, Jim. 2005. “Scientific Progress in Quantitative Political Economy.” The Political Economist 12(4): 1, 3, 9.Google Scholar
Green, Donald, and Ian Shapiro. 1994. Pathologies of Rational Choice Theory: A Critique of Applications in Political Science. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Greif, Avner, Paul Milgrom, and Barry R. Weingast. 1994. “Coordination, Commitment, and Enforcement: The Case of the Merchant Guild.” Journal of Political Economy 102: 745–777.Google Scholar
Gunderson, Lance H., and Crawford S. Holling, eds. 2001. Panarchy: Understanding Transformations in Human and Natural Systems. Washington, D.C.: Island Press.Google Scholar
Hall, Peter, and R. Taylor. 1996. “Political Science and the Three New Institutionalisms.” Political Studies 44(4): 936–957.Google Scholar
Hardin, Garrett. 1968. “The Tragedy of the Commons.” Science 162: 1243–1248.Google Scholar
Hempel, Carl G. 1965. Fundamentals of Concept Formation in Empirical Science. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Herzberg, Roberta, and Vincent Ostrom. 1991. “ Votes and Vetoes.” In The Public Sector—Challenge for Coordination and Learning, ed. Franz-Xaver Kaufmann. Berlin and New York: Walter de Gruyter, 441–450. Reprinted in Michael McGinnis, ed., Polycentric Games and Institutions: Readings from the Workshop in Political Theory and Policy Analysis (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2000, pp. 168–183).Google Scholar
Hodgson, Geoffrey M. 2004. The Evolution of Institutional Economics: Agency, Structure and Darwinism in American Institutionalism. London: Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group.Google Scholar
Janssen, Marco. 2005. “Evolution of Cooperation in a One-Shot Prisoner's Dilemma Based on Recognition of Trustworthy and Untrustworthy Agents.” Working Paper. Bloomington: Indiana University, Center for the Study of Institutions, Population, and Environmental Change (CIPEC).Google Scholar
Janssen, Marco, and Elinor Ostrom. Forthcoming A. “Governing Social-Ecological Systems.” In Handbook of Computational Economics II: Agent-Based Computational Economics, eds. Kenneth L. Judd and Leigh Tesfatsion. Amsterdam: Elsevier.Google Scholar
Janssen, Marco, and Elinor Ostrom. Forthcoming B. “Adoption of a New Regulation for the Governance of Common-Pool Resources by a Heterogeneous Population.” In Inequality, Cooperation, and Environmental Sustainability, eds. Jean-Marie Baland, Pranab Bardhan, and Samuel Bowles. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Janssen, Marco, and Marten Scheffer. 2004. “Overexploitation of Renewable Resources by Ancient Societies and the Role of Sunk-Cost Effects.” Ecology and Society 9(1): 6. Available online at www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol9/iss1/art6.Google Scholar
Jones, Bryan D. 2001. Politics and the Architecture of Choice: Bounded Rationality and Governance. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Joshi, Neeraj N., Elinor Ostrom, Ganesh P. Shivakoti, and Wai Fung Lam. 2000. “Institutional Opportunities and Constraints in the Performance of Farmer-Managed Irrigation Systems in Nepal.” Asia-Pacific Journal of Rural Development 10(2): 67–92.Google Scholar
King, Gary, Robert Keohane, and Sidney Verba. 1994. Designing Social Inquiry. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Kiser, Larry L., and Elinor Ostrom. 1982. “ The Three Worlds of Action: A Metatheoretical Synthesis of Institutional Approaches.” In Strategies of Political Inquiry, ed. Elinor Ostrom. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 179–222.Google Scholar
Koestler, Arthur. 1973. “ The Tree and the Candle.” In Unity through Diversity, Part I, eds. William Gray and Nicholas D. Rizzo. New York: Gordon and Breach Science Publishers, 287–314.Google Scholar
Koremenos, Barbara, Charles Lipson, and Duncan Snidal. 2001. “The Rational Design of International Institutions.” International Organization 55(4): 761–799.Google Scholar
Kreps, David M., Paul Milgrom, John Roberts, and Robert Wilson. 1982. “Rational Cooperation in the Finitely Repeated Prisoner's Dilemma.” Journal of Economic Theory 27: 245–252.Google Scholar
Kuran, Timur. 1989. “Sparks and Prairie Fires: A Theory of Unanticipated Political Revolution.” Public Choice 61: 41–74.Google Scholar
Lam, Wai Fung. 1998. Governing Irrigation Systems in Nepal: Institutions, Infrastructure, and Collective Action. Oakland, CA: ICS Press.Google Scholar
Landa, Janet T. 1994. Trust, Ethnicity, and Identity: Beyond the New Institutional Economics of Ethnic Trading Networks, Contract Law, and Gift-Exchange. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.Google Scholar
Leeson, Peter T. 2005. “Endogenizing Fractionalization.” Journal of Institutional Economics 1(1): 75–98.Google Scholar
Madison, James. 1984 [1840]. Notes of Debates in the Federal Convention of 1787 Reported by James Madison. With an introduction by Adrienne Koch. Athens: Ohio University Press.Google Scholar
March, James G., and Johan P. Olsen. 1989. Rediscovering Institutions: The Organizational Basis of Politics. New York: Free Press.Google Scholar
Mayhew, David R. 2003. “Supermajority Rule in the U.S. Senate.” PS: Political Science and Politics 36(1): 31–36.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McGinnis, Michael, ed. 1999a. Polycentric Governance and Development: Readings from the Workshop in Political Theory and Policy Analysis. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.Google Scholar
McGinnis, Michael, ed. 1999b. Polycentricity and Local Public Economies: Readings from the Workshop in Political Theory and Policy Analysis. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McGinnis, Michael, ed. 2000. Polycentric Games and Institutions: Readings from the Workshop in Political Theory and Policy Analysis. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McGinnis, Michael 2005. Dilemmas of Global Response to Conflict: Lessons from the Horn of Africa. Bloomington: Indiana University, Workshop in Political Theory and Policy Analysis.Google Scholar
McGinnis, Michael, and John T. Williams. 2001. Compound Dilemmas: Democracy, Collective Action, and Superpower Rivalry. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.Google Scholar
Milgrom, Paul, Douglass C. North, and Barry Weingast. 1990. “The Role of Institution in the Revival of Trade: The Medieval Law Merchant, Private Judges, and the Champagne Fairs.” Economics and Politics 1(1): 1–23.Google Scholar
Monroe, Kristen Renwick. 2005. Perestroika! The Raucous Revolution in Political Science. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Moran, Emilio, and Elinor Ostrom, eds. 2005. Seeing the Forest and the Trees: Human-Environment Interactions in Forest Ecosystems. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Google Scholar
Nagel, Ernst. 1961. The Structure of Science: Problems in the Logic of Scientific Explanation. New York: Harcourt, Brace and World.Google Scholar
Niou, Emerson M. S., and Peter C. Ordeshook. 1999. “Return of the Luddites.” International Security 24(2): 84–96.Google Scholar
North, Douglass. 1990. Institutions, Institutional Change and Economic Performance. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
North, Douglass. 2005. Understanding the Process of Economic Change. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
NRC (National Research Council). 1986. Proceedings of the Conference on Common Property Resource Management. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press.Google Scholar
Olson, Mancur. 1965. The Logic of Collective Action: Public Goods and the Theory of Groups. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Orbell, John M., Tomonori Morikawa, Jason Hartwig, James Hanley, and Nicholas Allen. 2004. “‘Machiavellian’ Intelligence as a Basis for the Evolution of Cooperative Dispositions.” American Political Science Review 98(1): 1–15.Google Scholar
Ostrom, Elinor. 1990. Governing the Commons: The Evolution of Institutions for Collective Action. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Ostrom, Elinor. 1998. “A Behavioral Approach to the Rational Choice Theory of Collective Action.” American Political Science Review 92(1): 1–22.Google Scholar
Ostrom, Elinor. 2005. Understanding Institutional Diversity. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Ostrom, Elinor. Forthcoming. “ Collective Action Theory.” In Oxford Handbook of Comparative Politics, eds. Carles Boix and Susan Stokes. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Ostrom, Elinor, Roy Gardner, and James Walker. 1994. Rules, Games, and Common-Pool Resources. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.Google Scholar
Ostrom, Elinor, James Walker, and Roy Gardner. 1992. “Covenants with and without a Sword: Self-Governance is Possible.” American Political Science Review 86(2): 404–417.Google Scholar
Ostrom, Vincent. 1980. “Artisanship and Artifact.” Public Administration Review 40(4): 309–317.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ostrom, Vincent. 1997. The Meaning of Democracy and the Vulnerability of Democracies: A Response to Tocqueville's Challenge. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.Google Scholar
Ostrom, Vincent, and Elinor Ostrom. 1997. “ Cultures: Frameworks, Theories, and Models.” In Culture Matters: Essays in Honor of Aaron Wildavsky, eds. Richard J. Ellis and Michael Thompson. Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 79–88.Google Scholar
Pasotti, Eleonara, and Bo Rothstein. 2002. “In the Market for Ideas: A Quest for a Unified Conceptual Approach in Political Science.” Presented at the American Political Science Association Annual Meeting, Boston.Google Scholar
Poteete, Amy, and Elinor Ostrom. 2004a. “Heterogeneity, Group Size and Collective Action: The Role of Institutions in Forest Management.” Development and Change 35(3): 435–461.Google Scholar
Poteete, Amy, and Elinor Ostrom. 2004b. “Conceptual Consistency and Data Comparability: Methodological Challenges to Empirical Research on Collective Action.” Presented at the American Political Science Association Annual Meeting, Chicago.Google Scholar
Putnam, Robert D. 1988. “Diplomacy and Domestic Politics: The Logic of Two-Level Games.” International Organization 42: 427–460.Google Scholar
Regmi, Ashok. Forthcoming. “The Role of Heterogeneity in Collective Action: A Look at the Inter Tie between Irrigation and Forests. Case Studies from, Chitwan Nepal.” Ph.D. dissertation, Indiana University.Google Scholar
Richerson, Peter J., and Robert Boyd. 2005. Not by Genes Alone: How Culture Transformed Human Evolution. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Robertson, David Brian. 2005. “Madison's Opponents and Constitutional Design.” American Political Science Review 99(2): 225–243.Google Scholar
Rosenthal, Howard. 1990. “ The Setter Model.” In Advances in the Spatial Theory of Voting, eds. J. Enelow and Melvin Hinich. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 199–234.Google Scholar
Ruttan, Vernon W. 2003. Social Science Knowledge and Economic Development. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.Google Scholar
Satz, D., and J. Ferejohn. 1994. “Rational Choice and Social Theory.” Journal of Philosophy 91(2): 71–87.Google Scholar
Sawyer, Amos. 2005. Beyond Plunder: Toward Democratic Governance in Liberia. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers.Google Scholar
Scharpf, Fritz W. 1997. Games Real Actors Play: Actor-Centered Institutionalism in Policy Research. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.Google Scholar
Schelling, Thomas C. 1978. Micromotives and Macrobehavior. New York: W. W. Norton.Google Scholar
Schiemann, John W. 2000. “Meeting Halfway between Rochester and Frankfurt: Generative Salience, Focal Points, and Strategic Interaction.” American Journal of Political Science 44: 1–16.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schlager, Edella, William Blomquist, and Shui Yan Tang. 1994. “Mobile Flows, Storage, and Self-Organized Institutions for Governing Common-Pool Resources.” Land Economics 70(3): 294–317.Google Scholar
Searle, John R. 1969. Speech Acts: An Essay in the Philosophy of Language. New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Searle, John R. 1995. The Construction of Social Reality. New York: Free Press.Google Scholar
Searle, John R. 2002. Consciousness and Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Selten, Reinhard. 1990. “Bounded Rationality.” Journal of Institutional and Theoretical Economics 146(4): 649–658.Google Scholar
Shepsle, Kenneth A. 2003. “Jigsaw Puzzle Redux.” Extension of Remarks (newsletter of the Legislative Studies Section of APSA) 26(2): 28–31.Google Scholar
Shepsle, Kenneth A., and Barry R. Weingast. 1987. “The Institutional Foundations of Committee Power.” American Political Science Review 81: 85–104.Google Scholar
Shivakoti, Ganesh P., and Elinor Ostrom. 2001. Improving Irrigation Governance and Management in Nepal. Oakland, CA: ICS Press.Google Scholar
Shivakumar, Sujai J. 2005. The Constitution of Development: Crafting Capabilities for Self-Governance. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.Google Scholar
Sigelman, Lee. 2005. “ The APSR in the Perestroika Era.” In Perestroika! The Raucous Revolution in Political Science, ed. Kristen Renwick Monroe. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Simon, Herbert. 1995. “ Near Decomposability and Complexity: How a Mind Resides in a Brain.” In The Mind, the Brain, and Complex Adaptive Systems, eds. Harold J. Morowitz and Jerome L. Singer. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 25–44.Google Scholar
Simon, Herbert. 1999. “ The Potlatch between Economics and Political Science.” In Competition and Cooperation: Conversations with Nobelists about Economics and Political Science, eds. James E. Alt, Margaret Levi, and Elinor Ostrom. New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 112–119.Google Scholar
Simon, Herbert. 2000. “Public Administration in Today's World of Organizations and Markets.” PS: Political Science and Politics 33(4): 749–756.Google Scholar
Smith, Vernon L. 2000. Essays in Experimental Economics. New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Tucker, Catherine, and Elinor Ostrom. 2005. “ Multidisciplinary Research Relating Institutions and Forest Transformations.” In Seeing the Forest and the Trees: Human-Environment Interactions in Forest Ecosystems, eds. Emilio Moran and Elinor Ostrom. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 81–103.Google Scholar
Truman, David B. 1951. The Governmental Process. New York: Knopf.Google Scholar
Tsebelis, George. 2002. Veto Players: How Political Institutions Work. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Varughese, George, and Elinor Ostrom. 2001. “The Contested Role of Heterogeneity in Collective Action: Some Evidence from Community Forestry in Nepal.” World Development 29(5): 747–765.Google Scholar
Victor, David C., Joshua House, and Sarah Joy. 2005. “A Madisonian Approach to Climate Policy.” Science 309(5742): 1820–1821.Google Scholar