Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-dh8gc Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-15T23:00:22.293Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Autistic spectrum disorder symptoms in children and adolescents with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a meta-analytical review

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  18 September 2019

Jack Hollingdale Open the ORCID record for Jack Hollingdale [Opens in a new window] ,
Emma Woodhouse ,
Susan Young ,
Adie Fridman  and
Will Mandy
Jack Hollingdale*
Affiliation:
University College London, London, UK
Emma Woodhouse
Affiliation:
King's College London, London, UK
Susan Young
Affiliation:
Psychology Services Ltd, London, UK
Adie Fridman
Affiliation:
University of California, Berkeley, USA
Will Mandy
Affiliation:
University College London, London, UK
*
Author for correspondence: Jack Hollingdale, E-mail: jack.hollingdale.14@ucl.ac.uk
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Background

Research identifies highly variable prevalence estimates for autism spectrum disorder (ASD) in children and adolescents with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), particularly between community and clinical samples, warranting quantitative meta-analyses to investigate the true prevalence of ASD in children and adolescents with ADHD.

Methods

Studies were identified through a systematic literature search of PsycINFO, MEDLINE and Web of Science through January 2018. Twenty-two publications met inclusion criteria (total N = 61 985). Two random effects meta-analyses were conducted: (1) to identify the proportion of children and adolescents with ADHD that met criteria for ASD; and (2) to compare the severity of dimensionally-measured ASD symptomology in children and adolescents with and without ADHD.

Results

The overall pooled effect for children and adolescents with ADHD who met threshold for ASD was 21%. There was no significant difference between community samples (19%) and clinical samples (24%) or between US studies v. those from other countries. Children and adolescents with ADHD had substantially more dimensionally-measured ASD traits compared with those who did not have ADHD (d = 1.23).

Conclusion

The findings provide further evidence that ADHD and ASD are associated in nature. Clinical and research implications are discussed.

Type
Original Articles
Information
Psychological Medicine , Volume 50 , Issue 13 , October 2020 , pp. 2240 - 2253
Check for updates
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2019

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Achenbach, TM and Edlebrock, C (1991) Manual for the Child Behavior Checklist. Burlington, VT: University of Vermont.Google Scholar
Allen, CW, Silove, N, Williams, K and Hutchins, P (2007) Validity of the social communication questionnaire in assessing risk of autism in preschool children with developmental problems. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 37, 1272–1278.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
American Psychiatric Association (2000) Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders: DSM-IV-TR. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association.Google Scholar
APA (2013) Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders: DSM-5 (ed.). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association.Google Scholar
Ayaz, A, Gökçe, S, Gümüştaş, F and Ayaz, M (2014) Symptoms of autism spectrum disorder in subtypes of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Journal of Intellectual and Developmental Disability 39, 290–297.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baird, G, Simonoff, E, Pickles, A, Chandler, S, Loucas, T, Meldrum, D and Charman, T (2006) Prevalence of disorders of the autism spectrum in a population cohort of children in South Thames: the special needs and autism project (SNAP). Lancet 368, 210–215.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Berument, SK, Rutter, M, Lord, C, Pickles, A and Bailey, A (1999) Autism screening questionnaire: diagnostic validity. The British Journal of Psychiatry 175, 444–451.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Biederman, J, Petty, CR, Fried, R, Wozniak, J, Micco, JA, Henin, A, Doyle, R, Joshi, G, Galdo, M, Kotarski, M and Caruso, J (2010) Child behavior checklist clinical scales discriminate referred youth with autism spectrum disorder: a preliminary study. Journal of Developmental & Behavioral Pediatrics 31, 485–490.Google Scholar
Bishop, DV and Baird, G (2001) Parent and teacher report of pragmatic aspects of communication: use of the children's communication checklist in a clinical setting. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology 43, 809–818.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bölte, S, Westerwald, E, Holtmann, M, Freitag, C and Poustka, F (2011) Autistic traits and autism spectrum disorders: the clinical validity of two measures presuming a continuum of social communication skills. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 41, 66–72.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Boyle, MH (1998) Guidelines for evaluating prevalence studies. Evidence-Based Mental Health 1, 37–39.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brockwell, SE and Gordon, IR (2001) A comparison of statistical methods for meta-analysis. Statistics in Medicine 20, 825–840.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bruce, B, Thernlund, G and Nettelbladt, U (2006) ADHD and language impairment. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry 15, 52–60.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Buitelaar, JK, van der Wees, M, Swaab-Barneveld, H and van der Gaag, RJ (1999) Verbal memory and performance IQ predict theory of mind and emotion recognition ability in children with autistic spectrum disorders and in psychiatric control children. The Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines 40, 869–881.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cantwell, DP (1996) Attention deficit disorder: a review of the past 10 years. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry 35, 978–987.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carpenter Rich, E, Loo, SK, Yang, M, Dang, J and Smalley, SL (2009) Social functioning difficulties in ADHD: association with PDD risk. Clinical Child Psychology and Psychiatry 14, 329–344.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chandler, S, Charman, T, Baird, G, Simonoff, E, Loucas, TOM, Meldrum, D, Scott, M and Pickles, A (2007) Validation of the social communication questionnaire in a population cohort of children with autism spectrum disorders. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry 46, 1324–1332.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Charman, T, Baird, G, Simonoff, E, Loucas, T, Chandler, S, Meldrum, D and Pickles, A (2007) Efficacy of three screening instruments in the identification of autistic-spectrum disorders. The British Journal of Psychiatry 191, 554–559.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clark, T, Feehan, C, Tinline, C and Vostanis, P (1999) Autistic symptoms in children with attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry 8, 50–55.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clarke, AR, Barry, RJ, Irving, AM, McCarthy, R and Selikowitz, M (2011) Children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and autistic features: EEG evidence for comorbid disorders. Psychiatry Research 185, 225–231.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Constantino, JN and Gruber, CP (2012) Social Responsiveness Scale (SRS). Torrance, CA: Western Psychological Services.Google Scholar
Constantino, JN and Todd, RD (2003) Autistic traits in the general population: a twin study. Archives of General Psychiatry 60, 524–530.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Craig, F, Lamanna, AL, Margari, F, Matera, E, Simone, M and Margari, L (2015) Overlap between autism spectrum disorders and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: searching for distinctive/common clinical features. Autism Research 8, 328–337.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
DuPaul, GJ, McGoey, KE, Eckert, TL and VanBrakle, J (2001) Preschool children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: impairments in behavioral, social, and school functioning. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry 40, 508–515.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Elsabbagh, M, Divan, G, Koh, YJ, Kim, YS, Kauchali, S, Marcín, C, Montiel-Nava, C, Patel, V, Paula, CS, Wang, C and Yasamy, MT (2012) Global prevalence of autism and other pervasive developmental disorders. Autism Research 5, 160–179.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Faraone, SV, Sergeant, J, Gillberg, C and Biederman, J (2003) The worldwide prevalence of ADHD: is it an American condition? World psychiatry 2, 104.Google Scholar
Fernandopulle, N (2011) Measurement of autism: a review of four screening measures. Indian Journal of Psychological Medicine 33, 5.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Frazier, TW, Youngstrom, EA, Speer, L, Embacher, R, Law, P, Constantino, J, Findling, RL, Hardan, AY and Eng, C (2012) Validation of proposed DSM-5 criteria for autism spectrum disorder. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry 51, 28–40.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gadow, KD, Devincent, CJ, Pomeroy, J and Azizian, A (2005) Comparison of DSM-IV symptoms in elementary school-age children with PDD versus clinic and community samples. Autism 9, 392–415.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gadow, KD, DeVincent, CJ and Schneider, J (2009) Comparative study of children with ADHD only, autism spectrum disorder + ADHD, and chronic multiple tic disorder + ADHD. Journal of Attention Disorders 12, 474–485.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Goodman, R, Ford, T, Richards, H, Gatward, R and Meltzer, H (2000) The development and well-being assessment: description and initial validation of an integrated assessment of child and adolescent psychopathology. The Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines 41, 645–655.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Green, JL, Rinehart, N, Anderson, V, Nicholson, JM, Jongeling, B and Sciberras, E (2015) Autism spectrum disorder symptoms in children with ADHD: a community-based study. Research in Developmental Disabilities 47, 175–184.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Green, JL, Rinehart, N, Anderson, V, Efron, D, Nicholson, JM, Jongeling, B, Hazell, P and Sciberras, E (2016 a) Association between autism symptoms and family functioning in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a community-based study. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry 25, 1307–1318.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Green, JL, Sciberras, E, Anderson, V, Efron, D and Rinehart, N (2016 b) Association between autism symptoms and functioning in children with ADHD. Archives of Disease in Childhood 101, 922–928.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Greene, RW, Biederman, J, Faraone, SV, Monuteaux, MC, Mick, E, DuPRE, EP, Fine, CS and Goring, JC (2001) Social impairment in girls with ADHD: patterns, gender comparisons, and correlates. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry 40, 704–710.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Grove, J, Ripke, S, Als, TD, Mattheisen, M, Walters, R, Won, H, Pallesen, J, Agerbo, E, Andreassen, OA, Anney, R and Belliveau, R (2017) Common risk variants identified in autism spectrum disorder. BioRxiv, 224774. https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/224774v1.abstractGoogle Scholar
Grzadzinski, R, Di Martino, A, Brady, E, Mairena, MA, O'Neale, M, Petkova, E, Lord, C and Castellanos, FX (2011) Examining autistic traits in children with ADHD: does the autism spectrum extend to ADHD? Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 41, 1178–1191.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Grzadzinski, R, Dick, C, Lord, C and Bishop, S (2016) Parent-reported and clinician-observed autism spectrum disorder (ASD) symptoms in children with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): implications for practice under DSM-5. Molecular Autism 7, 7.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Guttmann-Steinmetz, S, Gadow, KD and DeVincent, CJ (2009) Oppositional defiant and conduct disorder behaviors in boys with autism spectrum disorder with and without attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder versus several comparison samples. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 39, 976–985.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hansson, SL, Svanströmröjvall, A, Rastam, M, Gillberg, C, Gillberg, C and Anckarsäter, H (2005) Psychiatric telephone interview with parents for screening of childhood autism–tics, attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder and other comorbidities (A-TAC): preliminary reliability and validity. The British Journal of Psychiatry 187, 262–267.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Happé, F and Frith, U (1995) Theory of mind in autism. In Schopler, E and Mesibov, GB (eds), Learning and Cognition in Autism. Current Issues in Autism. Boston, MA: Springer, pp. 177–197.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Happé, F and Frith, U (2006) The weak coherence account: detail-focused cognitive style in autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 36, 5–25.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hartley, SL and Sikora, DM (2009) Which DSM-IV-TR criteria best differentiate high-functioning autism spectrum disorder from ADHD and anxiety disorders in older children? Autism 13, 485–509.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hattori, J, Ogino, T, Abiru, K, Nakano, K, Oka, M and Ohtsuka, Y (2006) Are pervasive developmental disorders and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder distinct disorders? Brain and Development 28, 371–374.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Higgins, JP, Thompson, SG, Deeks, JJ and Altman, DG (2003) Measuring inconsistency in meta-analyses. BMJ: British Medical Journal 327, 557.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Holtmann, M, Bölte, S and Poustka, F (2007) Autism spectrum disorders: sex differences in autistic behaviour domains and coexisting psychopathology. Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology 49, 361–366.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hoy, D, Brooks, P, Woolf, A, Blyth, F, March, L, Bain, C, Baker, P, Smith, E and Buchbinder, R (2012) Assessing risk of bias in prevalence studies: modification of an existing tool and evidence of interrater agreement. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology 65, 934–939.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hoza, B (2007) Peer functioning in children with ADHD. Journal of Pediatric Psychology 32, 655–663.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jackson, D and Turner, R (2017) Power analysis for random-effects meta-analysis. Research Synthesis Methods 8, 290–302.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jang, J, Matson, JL, Williams, LW, Tureck, K, Goldin, RL and Cervantes, PE (2013) Rates of comorbid symptoms in children with ASD, ADHD, and comorbid ASD and ADHD. Research in Developmental Disabilities 34, 2369–2378.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jensen, CM and Steinhausen, HC (2015) Comorbid mental disorders in children and adolescents with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in a large nationwide study. ADHD Attention Deficit and Hyperactivity Disorders 7, 27–38.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kessler, RC, Adler, L, Barkley, R, Biederman, J, Conners, CK, Demler, O, Faraone, SV, Greenhill, LL, Howes, MJ, Secnik, K and Spencer, T (2006) The prevalence and correlates of adult ADHD in the United States: results from the national comorbidity survey replication. American Journal of psychiatry 163, 716–723.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kiser, DP, Rivero, O and Lesch, KP (2015) Annual research review: the (epi) genetics of neurodevelopmental disorders in the era of whole-genome sequencing–unveiling the dark matter. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 56, 278–295.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Klimkeit, E, Graham, C, Lee, P, Morling, M, Russo, D and Tonge, B (2006) Children should be seen and heard: self-report of feelings and behaviors in primary-school-age children with ADHD. Journal of Attention Disorders 10, 181–191.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kochhar, P, Batty, MJ, Liddle, EB, Groom, MJ, Scerif, G, Liddle, PF and Hollis, CP (2011) Autistic spectrum disorder traits in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Child: Care, Health and Development 37, 103–110.Google Scholar
Kofler, MJ, Rapport, MD, Bolden, J, Sarver, DE, Raiker, JS and Alderson, RM (2011) Working memory deficits and social problems in children with ADHD. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology 39, 805–817.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kopp, S and Gillberg, C (2011) The Autism Spectrum Screening Questionnaire (ASSQ)-Revised Extended Version (ASSQ-REV): an instrument for better capturing the autism phenotype in girls? A preliminary study involving 191 clinical cases and community controls. Research in Developmental Disabilities 32, 2875–2888.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kotte, A, Joshi, G, Fried, R, Uchida, M, Spencer, A, Woodworth, KY, Kenworthy, T, Faraone, SV and Biederman, J (2013) Autistic traits in children with and without ADHD. Pediatrics 132, e612–e622.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lai, MC, Lombardo, MV, Auyeung, B, Chakrabarti, B and Baron-Cohen, S (2015) Sex/gender differences and autism: setting the scene for future research. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry 54, 11–24.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Larson, T, Anckarsäter, H, Gillberg, C, Ståhlberg, O, Carlström, E, Kadesjö, B, Råstam, M, Lichtenstein, P and Gillberg, C (2010) The autism-tics, AD/HD and other comorbidities inventory (A-TAC): further validation of a telephone interview for epidemiological research. BMC Psychiatry 10, 1.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Larson, K, Russ, SA, Kahn, RS and Halfon, N (2011) Patterns of comorbidity, functioning, and service use for US children with ADHD, 2007. Pediatrics 127, 462–470.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lee, DO and Ousley, OY (2006) Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder symptoms in a clinic sample of children and adolescents with pervasive developmental disorders. Journal of Child & Adolescent Psychopharmacology 16, 737–746.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lee, SH, Ripke, S, Neale, BM, Faraone, SV, Purcell, SM, Perlis, RH, Mowry, BJ, Thapar, A, Goddard, ME, Witte, JS and Absher, D (2013) Genetic relationship between five psychiatric disorders estimated from genome-wide SNPs. Nature Genetics 45, 984.Google Scholar
Leyfer, OT, Folstein, SE, Bacalman, S, Davis, NO, Dinh, E, Morgan, J, Tager-Flusberg, H and Lainhart, JE (2006) Comorbid psychiatric disorders in children with autism: interview development and rates of disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 36, 849–861.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Liberati, A, Altman, DG, Tetzlaff, J, Mulrow, C, Gøtzsche, PC, Ioannidis, JP, Clarke, M, Devereaux, PJ, Kleijnen, J and Moher, D (2009) The PRISMA statement for reporting systematic reviews and meta-analyses of studies that evaluate health care interventions: explanation and elaboration. PLoS Medicine 6, e1000100.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lichtenstein, P, Carlström, E, Råstam, M, Gillberg, C and Anckarsäter, H (2010) The genetics of autism spectrum disorders and related neuropsychiatric disorders in childhood. American Journal of Psychiatry 167, 1357–1363.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lipsey, MW and Wilson, D (2001) Practical meta-analysis (applied social research methods). Applied Social Research Methods Series 49, 264.Google Scholar
Loe, IM and Feldman, HM (2007) Academic and educational outcomes of children with ADHD. Journal of Pediatric Psychology 32, 643–654.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lord, C, Risi, S, DiLavore, PS, Shulman, C, Thurm, A and Pickles, A (2006) Autism from 2 to 9 years of age. Archives of General Psychiatry 63, 694–701.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lord, C, Luyster, R, Gotham, K and Guthrie, W (2012 a) Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule–Toddler Module. Los Angeles: Western Psychological Services.Google Scholar
Lord, C, Rutter, M, DiLavore, P, Risi, S, Gotham, K and Bishop, S (2012 b) Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule Second Edition (ADOS-2) Manual (Part 1): Modules 1–4. Torrance, CA: Western Psychological Services.Google Scholar
Lord, C, Petkova, E, Hus, V, Gan, W, Lu, F, Martin, DM, Ousley, O, Guy, L, Bernier, R, Gerdts, J and Algermissen, M (2012 c) A multisite study of the clinical diagnosis of different autism spectrum disorders. Archives of General Psychiatry 69, 306–313.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Low, NC, Cui, L and Merikangas, KR (2008) Community versus clinic sampling: effect on the familial aggregation of anxiety disorders. Biological Psychiatry 63, 884–890.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Luteijn, EF, Serra, M, Jackson, S, Steenhuis, MP, Althaus, M, Volkmar, F and Minderaa, R (2000) How unspecified are disorders of children with a pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified? A study of social problems in children with PDD-NOS and ADHD. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry 9, 168–179.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mahjouri, S and Lord, CE (2012) What the DSM-5 portends for research, diagnosis, and treatment of autism spectrum disorders. Current Psychiatry Reports 14, 739–747.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mancini, C, Van Ameringen, M, Oakman, JM and Figueiredo, D (1999) Childhood attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder in adults with anxiety disorders. Psychological Medicine 29, 515–525.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mandy, W, Chilvers, R, Chowdhury, U, Salter, G, Seigal, A and Skuse, D (2012) Sex differences in autism spectrum disorder: evidence from a large sample of children and adolescents. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 42, 1304–1313.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Matthys, W, Cuperus, JM and van Engeland, H (1999) Deficient social problem-solving in boys with ODD/CD, with ADHD, and with both disorders. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry 38, 311–321.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mayes, SD, Calhoun, SL, Murray, MJ, Morrow, JD, Yurich, KK, Mahr, F, Cothren, S, Purichia, H, Bouder, JN and Petersen, C (2009) Comparison of scores on the checklist for Autism Spectrum Disorder, Childhood Autism Rating Scale, and Gilliam Asperger's Disorder Scale for children with low functioning autism, high functioning autism, Asperger's disorder, ADHD, and typical development. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 39, 1682–1693.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mayes, SD, Calhoun, SL, Mayes, RD and Molitoris, S (2012) Autism and ADHD: overlapping and discriminating symptoms. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders 6, 277–285.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Moher, D, Liberati, A, Tetzlaff, J and Altman, DG (2009) Preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses: the PRISMA statement. Annals of Internal Medicine 151, 264–269.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mohiuddin, S, Legrou, R and Ghaziuddin, M (2010) Prevalence of autistic symptoms in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: a clinic-based study. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research 54.Google Scholar
Mulligan, A, Butler, L, Sorohan, J, Fitzgerald, M and Gill, M (2005) Symptoms of autism in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. American Journal of Medical Genetics, Part A 138, 60.Google Scholar
Mulligan, A, Anney, RJ, O'Regan, M, Chen, W, Butler, L, Fitzgerald, M, Buitelaar, J, Steinhausen, HC, Rothenberger, A, Minderaa, R and Nijmeijer, J (2009) Autism symptoms in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a familial trait which correlates with conduct, oppositional defiant, language and motor disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 39, 197–209.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Murray, MJ (2010) Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in the context of autism spectrum disorders. Current Psychiatry Reports 12, 382–388.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (2018) Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: diagnosis and management (NICE Guideline NG87). Retrieved from https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng87.Google Scholar
Nijmeijer, JS, Hoekstra, PJ, Minderaa, RB, Buitelaar, JK, Altink, ME, Buschgens, CJM, Fliers, EA, Rommelse, NNJ, Sergeant, JA and Hartman, CA (2009) PDD symptoms in ADHD, an independent familial trait? Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology 37, 443–453.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Patel, N, Patel, M and Patel, H (2012) ADHD and comorbid conditions. In Current Directions in ADHD and Its Treatment. InTech.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pliszka, SR, Carlson, CL and Swanson, JM (1999) ADHD with Comorbid Disorders: Clinical Assessment and Management. New York: Guilford.Google Scholar
Polanczyk, G, De Lima, MS, Horta, BL, Biederman, J and Rohde, LA (2007) The worldwide prevalence of ADHD: a systematic review and metaregression analysis. American Journal of Psychiatry 164, 942–948.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rao, PA and Landa, RJ (2014) Association between severity of behavioral phenotype and comorbid attention deficit hyperactivity disorder symptoms in children with autism spectrum disorders. Autism 18, 272–280.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Reiersen, AM, Constantino, JN, Volk, HE and Todd, RD (2007) Autistic traits in a population-based ADHD twin sample. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 48, 464–472.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Reiersen, AM, Constantino, JN, Grimmer, M, Martin, NG and Todd, RD (2008 a) Evidence for shared genetic influences on self-reported ADHD and autistic symptoms in young adult Australian twins. Twin Research and Human Genetics 11, 579–585.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Reiersen, AM, Constantino, JN and Todd, RD (2008 b) Co-occurrence of motor problems and autistic symptoms in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry 47, 662–672.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rogers, SJ (2000) Interventions that facilitate socialization in children with autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 30, 399–409.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rommelse, NN, Franke, B, Geurts, HM, Hartman, CA and Buitelaar, JK (2010) Shared heritability of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and autism spectrum disorder. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry 19, 281–295.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ronald, A, Simonoff, E, Kuntsi, J, Asherson, P and Plomin, R (2008) Evidence for overlapping genetic influences on autistic and ADHD behaviours in a community twin sample. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 49, 535–542.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Russell, G, Rodgers, LR, Ukoumunne, OC and Ford, T (2014) Prevalence of parent-reported ASD and ADHD in the UK: findings from the millennium cohort study. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 44, 31–40.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rutter, M, Bailey, A and Lord, C (2003 a) The Social Communication Questionnaire: Manual. Los Angeles: Western Psychological Services.Google Scholar
Rutter, M, Le Couteur, A and Lord, C (2003 b) Autism Diagnostic Interview-Revised, Vol 29. Los Angeles, CA: Western Psychological Services, p. 30.Google Scholar
Salley, B, Gabrielli, J, Smith, CM and Braun, M (2015) Do communication and social interaction skills differ across youth diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, or dual diagnosis? Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders 20, 58–66.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Santosh, PJ and Mijovic, A (2004) Social impairment in hyperkinetic disorder. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry 13, 141–150.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shaw, M, Hodgkins, P, Caci, H, Young, S, Kahle, J, Woods, AG and Arnold, LE (2012) A systematic review and analysis of long-term outcomes in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: effects of treatment and non-treatment. BMC medicine 10, 99.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sikora, DM, Hartley, SL, McCoy, R, Gerrard-Morris, AE and Dill, K (2008) The performance of children with mental health disorders on the ADOS-G: a question of diagnostic utility. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders 2, 188–197.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Simonoff, E, Pickles, A, Charman, T, Chandler, S, Loucas, T and Baird, G (2008) Psychiatric disorders in children with autism spectrum disorders: prevalence, comorbidity, and associated factors in a population-derived sample. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry 47, 921–929.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sinzig, J, Walter, D and Doepfner, M (2009) Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder in children and adolescents with autism spectrum disorder: symptom or syndrome? Journal of Attention Disorders 13, 117–126.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Spencer, TJ (2006) ADHD and comorbidity in childhood. The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 67, 27–31.Google Scholar
Spencer, T, Biederman, J and Wilens, T (1999) Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and comorbidity. Pediatric Clinics of North America 46, 915–927.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
StataCorp (2015) Stata Statistical Software: Release 14. College Station, TX: StatCorp LP.Google Scholar
Stergiakouli, E, Hamshere, M, Holmans, P, Langley, K, Zaharieva, I, deCODE Genetics, Psychiatric GWAS Consortium, Hawi, Z, Kent, L, Gill, M, Williams, N, Owen, MJ, O'Donovan, M and Thapar, A (2012). Investigating the contribution of common genetic variants to the risk and pathogenesis of ADHD. American Journal of Psychiatry, 169, 186–194.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Taurines, R, Schwenck, C, Westerwald, E, Sachse, M, Siniatchkin, M and Freitag, C (2012) ADHD and autism: differential diagnosis or overlapping traits? A selective review. ADHD Attention Deficit and Hyperactivity Disorders 4, 115–139.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Thomas, R, Sanders, S, Doust, J, Beller, E and Glasziou, P (2015) Prevalence of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Pediatrics 135, e994–e1001.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tye, C, Mercure, E, Ashwood, KL, Azadi, B, Asherson, P, Johnson, MH, Bolton, P and McLoughlin, G (2013) Neurophysiological responses to faces and gaze direction differentiate children with ASD, ADHD and ASD + ADHD. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience 5, 71–85.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tye, C, Asherson, P, Ashwood, KL, Azadi, B, Bolton, P and McLoughlin, G (2014 a) Attention and inhibition in children with ASD, ADHD and co-morbid ASD + ADHD: an event-related potential study. Psychological Medicine 44, 1101–1116.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tye, C, Battaglia, M, Bertoletti, E, Ashwood, KL, Azadi, B, Asherson, P, Bolton, P and McLoughlin, G (2014 b) Altered neurophysiological responses to emotional faces discriminate children with ASD, ADHD and ASD + ADHD. Biological Psychology 103, 125–134.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tye, C, Johnson, KA, Kelly, SP, Asherson, P, Kuntsi, J, Ashwood, KL, Azadi, B, Bolton, P and McLoughlin, G (2016) Response time variability under slow and fast-incentive conditions in children with ASD, ADHD and ASD + ADHD. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 57, 1414–1423.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Uekermann, J, Kraemer, M, Abdel-Hamid, M, Schimmelmann, BG, Hebebrand, J, Daum, I, Wiltfang, J and Kis, B (2010) Social cognition in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews 34, 734–743.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
van der Meer, JM, Oerlemans, AM, van Steijn, DJ, Lappenschaar, MG, de Sonneville, LM, Buitelaar, JK and Rommelse, NN (2012) Are autism spectrum disorder and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder different manifestations of one overarching disorder? Cognitive and symptom evidence from a clinical and population-based sample. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry 51, 1160–1172.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
van Steijn, DJ, Richards, JS, Oerlemans, AM, de Ruiter, SW, van Aken, MA, Franke, B, Buitelaar, JK and Rommelse, NN (2012) The co-occurrence of autism spectrum disorder and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder symptoms in parents of children with ASD or ASD with ADHD. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 53, 954–963.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
van Steijn, DJ, Oerlemans, AM, Van Aken, MA, Buitelaar, JK and Rommelse, NN (2014) The reciprocal relationship of ASD, ADHD, depressive symptoms and stress in parents of children with ASD and/or ADHD. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 44, 1064–1076.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wheeler-Maedgen, J and Carlson, CL (2000) Social functioning and emotional regulation in the attention deficit hyperactivity disorder subtypes. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology 29, 30–42.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wilens, TE, Biederman, J, Brown, S, Tanguay, S, Monuteaux, MC, Blake, C and Spencer, TJ (2002) Psychiatric comorbidity and functioning in clinically referred preschool children and school-age youths with ADHD. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry 41, 262–268.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Willcutt, EG, Nigg, JT, Pennington, BF, Solanto, MV, Rohde, LA, Tannock, R, Loo, SK, Carlson, CL, McBurnett, K and Lahey, BB (2012) Validity of DSM-IV attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder symptom dimensions and subtypes. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 121, 991.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
World Health Organization (1994) World Health Organization International classification of diseases tenth revision. Manual of the international statistical classification of disease, injuries, and cases of death. 10th rev ed. Geneva (Switzerland): WHO.Google Scholar
Wykes, T, Huddy, V, Cellard, C, McGurk, SR and Czobor, P (2011) A meta-analysis of cognitive remediation for schizophrenia: methodology and effect sizes. American Journal of Psychiatry 168, 472–485.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Young, S, González, RA, Mullens, H, Mutch, L, Malet-Lambert, I and Gudjonsson, GH (2018) Neurodevelopmental disorders in prison inmates: comorbidity and combined associations with psychiatric symptoms and behavioural disturbance. Psychiatry Research 261, 109–115.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Zablotsky, B, Bramlett, MD and Blumberg, SJ (2017) The co-occurrence of autism spectrum disorder in children with ADHD. Journal of Attention Disorders, p. 1087054717713638.Google Scholar