Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-m6dg7 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-19T15:17:49.643Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Is executive impairment associated with schizophrenic syndromes? A meta-analysis

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  30 June 2008

C. R. M. Dibben ,
C. Rice ,
K. Laws  and
P. J. McKenna
C. R. M. Dibben
Affiliation:
Fulbourn Hospital, Cambridge, UK
C. Rice
Affiliation:
Institute of Psychiatry, De Crespigny Park, Denmark Hill, London, UK
K. Laws
Affiliation:
School of Psychology, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield, UK
P. J. McKenna*
Affiliation:
Benito Menni CASM, Barcelona, Spain CIBERSAM, Spain
*
*Address for correspondence: Dr P. J. McKenna, Benito Menni Complex Assistencial en Salut Mental, Germanes Hospitalàries del Sagrat Cor de Jesús, C/Doctor Antoni Pujades 38-C, 08830 Sant Boi de Llobregat, Barcelona, Spain. (Email: mckennapeter1@googlemail.com)
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Background

A key neuropsychological proposal in schizophrenia is that negative and disorganization symptoms are associated with different patterns of impairment on executive tasks.

Method

Studies reporting correlations between positive, negative or disorganization symptoms and any type of executive test were meta-analysed. The influence of moderating factors was also examined, including age, treatment and stage of illness and whether symptoms were relapsing or persistent. The magnitudes of the correlations were compared with those for general intellectual impairment.

Results

Pooled correlations between executive impairment and both negative symptoms and disorganization were significant in the small-to-moderate range. That for positive symptoms (‘reality distortion’), however, was close to zero. The pattern of correlations among different executive tests differed significantly for negative symptoms and disorganization. Patients with stable clinical pictures showed significantly higher correlations with executive impairment than those with relapsing and remitting illnesses. Both negative symptoms and disorganization also correlated significantly with general intellectual function as indexed by current IQ.

Conclusions

Meta-analysis supports the view that negative symptoms and disorganization are associated with partially dissociable patterns of executive impairment. However, co-existent general intellectual impairment has been an important confounding factor in the studies to date.

Keywords

Executive functionneuropsychologyschizophreniaschizophrenic symptoms
Type
Original Articles
Information
Psychological Medicine , Volume 39 , Issue 3 , March 2009 , pp. 381 - 392
Copyright
Copyright © 2008 Cambridge University Press

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

*Addington, J, Addington, D (2000). Neurocognitive and social functioning in schizophrenia: a 2.5 year follow-up study. Schizophrenia Research 44, 47–56.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
*Addington, J, Addington, D, Maticka-Tyndale, E (1991). Cognitive functioning and positive and negative symptoms in schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Research 5, 123–134.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
*Allen, DN, Anastasiou, A, Goldstein, G, Gilbertson, M, van Kammen, DP (2000). Influence of haloperidol on the relationship of frontal lobe function to psychomotor poverty and disorganization syndromes. Psychiatry Research 93, 33–39.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Baddeley, AD (1986). Working Memory. Clarendon Press: Oxford.Google ScholarPubMed
*Barch, DM, Carter, CS, Perlstein, W, Baird, J, Cohen, JD, Schooler, N (1999). Increased Stroop facilitation effects in schizophrenia are not due to increased automatic spreading activation. Schizophrenia Research 39, 51–64.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
*Barrera, A, Hodges, JR, McKenna, PJ, Berrios, GE (2005). Formal thought disorder in schizophrenia: an executive or a semantic deficit? Psychological Medicine 35, 121–132.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
*Basso, MR, Nasrallah, HA, Olson, SC, Bornstein, RA (1998). Neuropsychological correlates of negative, disorganized and psychotic symptoms in schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Research 31, 99–111.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
*Baxter, RD, Liddle, PF (1998). Neuropsychological deficits associated with schizophrenic syndromes. Schizophrenia Research 30, 239–249.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
*Bell, MD, Lysaker, PH, Milstein, RM, Beam-Goulet, JL (1994). Concurrent validity of the cognitive component of schizophrenia: relationship of PANSS scores to neuropsychological assessments. Psychiatry Research 54, 51–58.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
*Berman, I, Viegner, B, Merson, A, Allan, E, Pappas, D, Green, AI (1997). Differential relationships between positive and negative symptoms and neuropsychological deficits in schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Research 25, 1–10.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
*Bersani, G, Clemente, R, Gherardelli, S, Pancheri, P (2004). Deficit of executive functions in schizophrenia: relationship to neurological soft signs and psychopathology. Psychopathology 37, 118–123.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
*Bilder, RM, Goldman, RS, Robinson, D, Reiter, G, Bell, L, Bates, JA, Pappadopulos, E, Wilson, DF, Alvir, JMJ, Woerner, MG, Geisler, S, Kane, JM, Lieberman, JA (2000). Neuropsychology of first episode schizophrenia: initial characterization and clinical correlates. American Journal of Psychiatry 157, 549–559.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
*Bilder, RM, Mukherjee, S, Rieder, RO, Pandurangi, AK (1985). Symptomatic and neuropsychological components of defect states. Schizophrenia Bulletin 11, 409–417.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Borenstein, M, Hedges, L, Higgins, J, Rothstein, H (2006). Comprehensive Meta-Analysis, Version 2. Biostat: Englewood, NJ.Google Scholar
*Bozikas, VP, Kosmidis, MH, Kiosseoglou, G, Karavatos, A (2006). Neuropsychological profile of cognitively impaired patients with schizophrenia. Comprehensive Psychiatry 47, 136–143.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
*Braff, DL, Heaton, R, Kuck, J, Cullum, M, Moranville, J, Grant, I, Zisook, S (1991). The generalized pattern of neuropsychological deficits in outpatients with chronic schizophrenia with heterogeneous Wisconsin Card Sorting Test results. Archives of General Psychiatry 48, 891–898.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
*Brazo, P, Marie, RM, Halbecq, I, Benali, K, Segard, L, Delamillieure, P, Langlois-Thery, S, Van Der Elst, A, Thibaut, F, Petit, M, Dollfus, S (2002). Cognitive patterns in subtypes of schizophrenia. European Psychiatry 17, 155–162.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
*Brebion, G, Smith, MJ, Amador, X, Malaspina, D, Gorman, JM (1997). Clinical correlates of memory in schizophrenia: differential links between depression, positive and negative symptoms, and two types of memory impairment. American Journal of Psychiatry 154, 1538–1543.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
*Brebion, G, Smith, M, Gorman, JM, Malaspina, D, Amador, X (1998). Resistance to interference and positive symptomatology in schizophrenia. Cognitive Neuropsychiatry 3, 179–190.Google Scholar
*Brekke, JS, Raine, A, Thomson, C (1995). Cognitive and psychopathological correlates of positive, negative, and disorganized symptoms in the schizophrenia spectrum. Psychiatry Research 57, 241–250.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
*Brier, A, Schreiber, JL, Dyer, J, Pickar, D (1991). National Institute of Mental Health longitudinal study of chronic schizophrenia. Archives of General Psychiatry 48, 239–246.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
*Brown, KW, White, T (1991). The association among negative symptoms, movement disorders, and frontal lobe psychological deficits in schizophrenic patients. Biological Psychiatry 30, 1182–1190.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brown, KW, White, T (1992). Syndromes of chronic schizophrenia and some clinical correlates. British Journal of Psychiatry 161, 317–322.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
*Bryson, G, Whelahan, HA, Bell, M (2001). Memory and executive function impairments in deficit syndrome schizophrenia. Psychiatry Research 102, 29–37.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
*Buchanan, RW, Strauss, ME, Kirkpatrick, B, Holstein, C, Brier, A, Carpenter, WT (1994). Neuropsychological impairments in deficit vs nondeficit forms of schizophrenia. Archives of General Psychiatry 51, 804–811.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
*Butler, RW, Jenkins, MA, Sprock, J, Braff, DL (1992). Wisconsin Card Sorting Test deficits in chronic paranoid schizophrenia: evidence for a relatively discrete subgroup? Schizophrenia Research 7, 169–176.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
*Cadenhead, KS, Geyer, MA, Butler, RW, Perry, W, Sprock, J, Braff, DL (1997). Information processing deficits of schizophrenia patients: relationship to clinical ratings, gender and medication status. Schizophrenia Research 28, 51–62.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
*Cameron, AM, Oram, J, Geffen, GM, Kavanagh, DJ, McGrath, JJ, Geffen, L (2002). Working memory correlates of three syndrome clusters in schizophrenia. Psychiatry Research 110, 49–61.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
*Capleton, RA (1996). Cognitive function in schizophrenia: association with negative and positive symptoms. Psychological Reports 78, 123–128.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Carpenter, WT Jr., Heinrichs, DW, Wagman, AM (1988). Deficit and nondeficit forms of schizophrenia: the concept. American Journal of Psychiatry 145, 578–583.Google ScholarPubMed
*Carstairs, K, Okocha, C, Hemsley, D, Toone, B, Sivakumar, K (1995). An application of Shallice's response selection model to the symptoms of schizophrenia. Neurology, Psychiatry and Brain Research 3, 211–218.Google Scholar
Chaika, E (1996). Intention, attention and deviant schizophrenic speech. In Communication and the Mentally Ill Patient: Developmental and Linguistic Approaches to Schizophrenia (ed.France, J. and Muir, N.), pp. 18–29. Jessica Kingsley: London.Google Scholar
*Chan, RC, Chen, EY, Law, CW (2006). Specific executive dysfunction in patients with first-episode medication-naive schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Research 82, 51–64.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
*Chen, EY, Lam, LC, Chen, RY, Nguyen, DG (1996). Negative symptoms, neurological signs and neuropsychological impairments in 204 Hong Kong Chinese patients with schizophrenia. British Journal of Psychiatry 168, 227–233.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
*Chen, YL, Chen, YH, Lieh-Mak, F (2000). Semantic verbal fluency deficit as a familial trait marker in schizophrenia. Psychiatry Research 95, 133–148.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
*Clark, O, O'Carroll, RE (1998). An examination of the relationship between executive function, memory and rehabilitation status in schizophrenia. Neuropsychological Rehabilitation 8, 229–241.Google Scholar
*Cohen, AS, Saperstein, AM, Gold, JM, Kirkpatrick, B, Carpenter, WT Jr., Buchanan, RW (2007). Neuropsychology of the deficit syndrome: new data and meta-analysis of findings to date. Schizophrenia Bulletin 33, 1201–1212.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
*Cuesta, MJ, Peralta, V (1995). Cognitive disorders in the positive, negative, and disorganization syndromes of schizophrenia. Psychiatry Research 58, 227–235.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
*Cuesta, MJ, Peralta, V, Caro, F, Leon, J (1995). Schizophrenic syndromes and Wisconsin Card Sorting Test dimensions. Psychiatry Research 58, 45–51.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
*Daban, C, Amado, I, Baylé, F, Gut, A, Willard, D, Bourdel, M-C, Loo, H, Olié, J-P, Millet, B, Krebs, M-O, Poirier, M-F (2002). Correlation between clinical syndromes and neurological tasks in unmedicated patients with recent onset schizophrenia. Psychiatry Research 113, 83–92.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Donohoe, G, Robertson, IH (2003). Can specific deficits in executive functioning explain the negative symptoms of schizophrenia? A review. Neurocase 9, 97–108.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
*Duffy, L, O'Carroll, R (1994). Memory impairment in schizophrenia – a comparison with that observed in the alcoholic Korsakoff syndrome. Psychological Medicine 24, 155–165.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Duncan, J (1995). Attention, intelligence and the frontal lobes. In The Cognitive Neurosciences (ed.Gazzaniga, M. S.), pp. 721–733. MIT Press: Cambridge, MA.Google Scholar
Duncan, J, Burgess, P, Emslie, H (1995). Fluid intelligence after frontal lobe lesions. Neuropsychologia 33, 261–268.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
*Eckman, PS, Shean, GD (2000). Impairment in test performance and symptom dimensions of schizophrenia. Journal of Psychiatric Research 34, 147–153.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
*Faber, R, Reichstein, MB (1981). Language dysfunction in schizophrenia. British Journal of Psychiatry 139, 519–522.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fish, FJ (1957). The classification of schizophrenia: the views of Kleist and his co-workers. Journal of Mental Science 103, 443–463.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
*Flaum, M, Andreasen, NC, Swayze, VW 2nd, O'Leary, DS, Alliger, RJ (1994). IQ and brain size in schizophrenia. Psychiatry Research 53, 243–257.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
*Franke, P, Maier, W, Hain, C, Klingler, T (1992). Wisconsin Card Sorting Test: an indicator of vulnerability to schizophrenia? Schizophrenia Research 6, 243–249.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
*Franke, P, Maier, W, Hardt, J, Frieboes, R, Lichtermann, D, Hain, C (1993). Assessment of frontal lobe functioning in schizophrenia and unipolar major depression. Psychopathology 26, 76–84.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Frith, CD (1992). The Cognitive Neuropsychology of Schizophrenia. Erlbaum (UK) Taylor & Francis: Hove.Google Scholar
*Galderisi, S, Maj, M, Mucci, A, Cassano, GB, Invernizzi, G, Rossi, A, Vita, A, Dell'Osso, L, Daneluzzo, E, Pini, S (2002). Historical, psychopathological, neurological, and neuropsychological aspects of deficit schizophrenia: a multicenter study. American Journal of Psychiatry 159, 983–990.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
*Glahn, DC, Cannon, TD, Gur, RE, Ragland, JD, Gur, RC (2000). Working memory constrains abstraction in schizophrenia. Biological Psychiatry 47, 34–42.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
*Goldberg, TE, Aloia, MS, Gourevitch, ML, Missar, D, Pickar, D, Weinberger, DR (1998). Cognitive substrates of thought disorder. I. The semantic system. American Journal of Psychiatry 155, 1671–1676.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Goldberg, TE, Gold, J, David, AD (2001). Neurocognitive deficits in schizophrenia. In Schizophrenia, 2nd edn (ed.Hirsch, S. R. and Weinberger, D. R.), pp. 168–186. Blackwell: Oxford.Google ScholarPubMed
*Goldberg, TE, Ragland, JD, Gold, JM, Bigelow, LB, Torrey, EF, Weinberger, DR (1990). Neuropsychological assessment of monozygotic twins discordant for schizophrenia. Archives of General Psychiatry 47, 1066–1072.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Goldman-Rakic, PS, Selemon, LD (1997). Functional and anatomical aspects of prefrontal pathology in schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Bulletin 23, 437–458.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
*Good, KP, Rabinowitz, J, Whitehorn, D, Harvey, PD, DeSmedt, G, Kopala, LC (2004). The relationship of neuropsychological test performance with the PANSS in antipsychotic naive, first-episode psychosis patients. Schizophrenia Research 68, 11–19.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
*Guillem, F, Bicu, M, Bloom, D, Wolf, M-A, Desautels, R, Lalinec, M, Krause, D, Debruille, JB (2001). Neuropsychological impairments in the syndromes of schizophrenia: a comparison between different dimensional models. Brain and Cognition 46, 153–159.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
*Hammer, MA, Katsanis, J, Iacono, WG (1995). The relationship between negative symptoms and neuropsychological performance. Biological Psychiatry 37, 828–830.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Harrison, PJ, Lewis, DA (2003). Neuropathology of schizophrenia. In Schizophrenia, 2nd edn (ed.Hirsch, S. R. and Weinberger, D. R.), pp. 310–325. Blackwell: Oxford.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
*Hawkins, KA, Hoffman, RE, Quinlan, DM, Rakfeldt, J, Docherty, NM, Sledge, WH (1997). Cognition, negative symptoms, and diagnosis: a comparison of schizophrenic, bipolar, and control samples. Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience 9, 81–89.Google ScholarPubMed
Heinz, A, Romero, B, Weinberger, DR (2004). Functional mapping with single-photon emission computed tomography and positron emission tomography. In Schizophrenia: From Neuroimaging to Neuroscience (ed.Lawrie, S. M., Weinberger, D. R. and Johnstone, E. C.), pp. 167–212. Oxford University Press: Oxford.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
*Heydebrand, G, Weiser, M, Rabinowitz, J, Hoff, AL, DeLisi, LE, Csernansky, JG (2004). Correlates of cognitive deficits in first episode schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Research 68, 1–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hill, K, Mann, L, Laws, KR, Stephenson, CM, Nimmo-Smith, I, McKenna, PJ (2004). Hypofrontality in schizophrenia: a meta-analysis of functional imaging studies. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 110, 243–256.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
*Himelhoch, S, Taylor, SF, Goldman, RS, Tandon, R (1996). Frontal lobe tasks, antipsychotic medication, and schizophrenia syndromes. Biological Psychiatry 39, 227–229.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
*Horan, WP, Blanchard, JJ (2003). Neurocognitive, social, and emotional dysfunction in deficit syndrome schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Research 65, 125–137.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Howell, DC (1997). Statistical Methods for Psychology, 4th edn. Duxbury Press: Belmont, CA.Google Scholar
Johnson, BT (1993). DSTAT 1.10: Software for the Meta-analytic Review of Research Literatures. Erlbaum: Hillsdale, NJ.Google Scholar
*Joyce, E, Hutton, S, Mutsatsa, S, Gibbins, H, Webb, E, Paul, S, Robbins, T, Barnes, T (2002). Executive dysfunction in first-episode schizophrenia and relationship to duration of untreated psychosis: the West London Study. British Journal of Psychiatry 181 (Suppl. 43), s38–s44.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kircher, TT, Liddle, PF, Brammer, MJ, Williams, SC, Murray, RM, McGuire, PK (2001). Neural correlates of formal thought disorder in schizophrenia: preliminary findings from a functional magnetic resonance imaging study. Archives of General Psychiatry 58, 769–774.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kircher, TT, Liddle, PF, Brammer, MJ, Williams, SC, Murray, RM, McGuire, PK (2002). Reversed lateralization of temporal activation during speech production in thought disordered patients with schizophrenia. Psychological Medicine 32, 439–449.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kirkpatrick, B, Buchanan, RW, Ross, DE, Carpenter, WT Jr. (2001). A separate disease within the syndrome of schizophrenia. Archives of General Psychiatry 58, 165–171.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kleist, K (1960). Schizophrenic symptoms and cerebral pathology. Journal of Mental Science 106, 246–255.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
*Klingberg, S, Wittorf, A, Wiedemann, G (2006). Disorganization and cognitive impairment in schizophrenia: independent symptom dimensions? European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience 256, 532–540.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
*Landre, NA, Taylor, MA (1995). Formal thought disorder in schizophrenia. Linguistic, attentional, and intellectual correlates. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 183, 673–680.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
*Langdon, R, Coltheart, M, Ward, PB, Catts, SV (2002). Disturbed communication in schizophrenia: the role of poor pragmatics and poor mind-reading. Psychological Medicine 32, 1273–1284.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Laws, KR (1999). A meta-analytic review of Wisconsin Card Sort studies in schizophrenia: general intellectual deficit in disguise. Cognitive Neuropsychiatry 4, 1–35.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lezak, MD, Howieson, DB, Loring, DW (2004). Neuropsychological Assessment, 3rd edn. Oxford University Press: Oxford.Google Scholar
*Liddle, PF (1987 a). Schizophrenic syndromes, cognitive performance and neurological dysfunction. Psychological Medicine 17, 49–57.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Liddle, PF (1987 b). The symptoms of chronic schizophrenia: a re-examination of the positive–negative dichotomy. British Journal of Psychiatry 151, 145–151.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Liddle, PF (2001). Disordered Mind and Brain. Gaskell: London.Google Scholar
Liddle, PF, Friston, KJ, Frith, CD, Hirsch, SR, Jones, T, Frackowiak, RSJ (1992). Patterns of cerebral blood flow in schizophrenia. British Journal of Psychiatry 160, 179–186.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
*Liddle, PF, Morris, DL (1991). Schizophrenic syndromes and frontal lobe performance. British Journal of Psychiatry 158, 340–345.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
*Lucas, S, Fitzgerald, D, Redoblado-Hodge, MA, Anderson, J, Sanbrook, M, Harris, A, Brennan, J (2004). Neuropsychological correlates of symptom profiles in first episode schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Research 71, 323–330.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
*Mahurin, RK, Velligan, DI, Hazleton, B, Davis, JM, Eckert, S, Miller, AL (2006). Trailmaking Test errors and executive function in schizophrenia and depression. Clinical Neuropsychologist 20, 271–288.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
*Maron, LM, Carlson, MD, Minassian, A, Perry, W (2004). A process approach to verbal fluency in patients with schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Research 68, 105–106.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McGrath, J (1991). Ordering thoughts on thought disorder. British Journal of Psychiatry 158, 307–316.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McGuire, PK, Quested, DJ, Spence, SA, Murray, RM, Frith, CD, Liddle, PF (1998). Pathophysiology of ‘positive’ thought disorder in schizophrenia. British Journal of Psychiatry 173, 231–235.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
McKenna, P, Oh, T (2005). Schizophrenic Speech: Making Sense of Bathroots and Ponds that Fall in Doorways. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge.Google Scholar
McKenna, PJ (2007). Schizophrenia and Related Syndromes, 2nd edn. Routledge: Hove.Google Scholar
*Merriam, AE, Kay, SR, Opler, LA, Kushner, SF, van Praag, HM (1990). Neurological signs and the positive–negative dimension in schizophrenia. Biological Psychiatry 28, 181–192.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
*Mohamed, S, Paulsen, JS, O'Leary, D, Arndt, S, Andreasen, NC (1999). Generalized cognitive deficits in schizophrenia: a study of first episode patients. Archives of General Psychiatry 56, 749–754.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
*Morice, R, Delahunty, A (1996). Frontal/executive impairments in schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Bulletin 22, 125–137.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
*Moritz, S, Andresen, B, Jacobsen, D, Mersmann, K, Wilke, U, Lambert, M, Naber, D, Kausz, M (2001). Neuropsychological correlates of schizophrenic syndromes in patients treated with atypical neuroleptics. European Psychiatry 16, 354–361.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
*Morris, RG, Rushe, T, Woodruffe, PW, Murray, RM (1995). Problem solving in schizophrenia: a specific deficit in planning ability. Schizophrenia Research 14, 235–246.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
*Mortimer, AM, Bentham, P, McKay, AP, Clare, L, Eastwood, N, McKenna, PJ (1996). Delusions in schizophrenia: a phenomenological and psychological exploration. Cognitive Neuropsychiatry 1, 289–304.Google Scholar
*Muller, BW, Sartory, G, Bender, S (2004). Neuropsychological deficits and concomitant clinical symptoms in schizophrenia. European Psychologist 9, 96–106.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
*Nelson, HE, Pantelis, C, Carruthers, K, Speller, J, Baxendale, S, Barnes, TR (1990). Cognitive functioning and symptomatology in chronic schizophrenia. Psychological Medicine 20, 357–365.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nieuwenstein, MR, Aleman, A, Dehaan, EHF (2001). Relationship between symptom dimensions and neurocognitive functioning in schizophrenia: a meta-analysis of WCST and CPT studies. Journal of Psychiatric Research 35, 119–125.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
*Norman, RMG, Malla, AK, Morrison-Stewart, SL, Helmes, E, Williamson, PC, Thomas, J, Cortese, L (1997). Neuropsychological correlates of syndromes in schizophrenia. British Journal of Psychiatry 170, 134–139.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Obonsawin, MC, Crawford, JR, Page, J, Chalmers, P, Cochrane, R, Low, G (2002). Performance on tests of frontal lobe function reflect general intellectual ability. Neuropsychologia 40, 970–977.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
*O'Leary, DS, Flaum, M, Kesler, ML, Flashman, LA, Arndt, S, Andreasen, NC (2000). Cognitive correlates of negative, disorganized and psychotic symptom dimensions of schizophrenia. Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences 12, 4–15.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
*Parellada, E, Catarineu, S, Catafau, A, Bernardo, M, Lomena, F (2000). Psychopathology and Wisconsin Card Sorting Test performance in young unmedicated schizophrenic patients. Psychopathology 33, 14–18.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
*Perry, W, Braff, DL (1998). A multimethod approach to assessing perseverations in schizophrenia patients. Schizophrenia Research 33, 69–77.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
*Pollice, R, Roncone, R, Falloon, IRH, Mazza, M, De Risio, A, Necozione, S, Morosini, P, Casacchia, M (2002). Is theory of mind in schizophrenia more strongly associated with clinical and social deficits than with neurocognitive deficits? Psychopathology 35, 280–288.Google Scholar
*Pukrop, R, Matuschek, E, Ruhrmann, S, Brockhaus-Dumke, A, Tendolkar, I, Bertsch, A, Klosterkotter, J (2003). Dimensions of working memory dysfunction in schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Research 62, 259–268.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
*Ragland, JD, Censits, DM, Gur, RC, Glahn, DC, Gallacher, F, Gur, RE (1996). Assessing declarative memory in schizophrenia using Wisconsin Card Sorting Test stimuli: the Paired Associate Recognition Test. Psychiatry Research 60, 135–145.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
*Robert, PH, Lafont, V, Medicin, I, Berthet, L, Thauby, S, Baudu, C, Darcourt, G (1998). Clustering and switching strategies in verbal fluency tasks: comparison between schizophrenics and healthy adults. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society 4, 539–546.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
*Rosse, RB, Schwartz, BL, Kim, SY, Deutsch, SI (1993). Correlation between antisaccade and Wisconsin Card Sorting Test performance in schizophrenia. American Journal of Psychiatry 150, 333–335.Google ScholarPubMed
*Rossi, A, Mancini, F, Stratta, P, Mattei, P, Gismondi, R, Pozzi, F, Casacchia, M (1997). Risperidone, negative symptoms and cognitive deficit in schizophrenia: an open study. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 95, 40–43.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
*Rund, BR, Melle, I, Friis, S, Larsen, TK, Midboe, LJ, Opjordsmoen, S, Simonsen, E, Vaglum, P, McGlashan, T (2004). Neurocognitive dysfunction in first-episode psychosis: correlates with symptoms, premorbid adjustment, and duration of untreated psychosis. American Journal of Psychiatry 161, 466–472.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
*Sachdev, P, Hume, F, Toohey, P, Doutney, C (1996). Negative symptoms, cognitive dysfunction, tardive akathisia and tardive dyskinesia. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 93, 451–459.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
*Sanfilipo, M, Lafargue, T, Rusinek, H, Arena, L, Loneragan, C, Lautin, A, Rotrosen, J, Wolkin, A (2002). Cognitive performance in schizophrenia: relationship to regional brain volumes and psychiatric symptoms. Psychiatry Research 116, 1–23.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
*Saoud, M, Hueber, T, Mandran, H, Dalery, J, d'Amato, T (1998). Olfactory identification deficiency and WCST performance in men with schizophrenia. Psychiatry Research 81, 251–257.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
*Schuepbach, D, Keshavan, MS, Kmiec, JA, Sweeney, JA (2002). Negative symptom resolution and improvements in specific cognitive deficits after acute treatment in first-episode schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Research 53, 249–261.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
*Seckinger, RA, Goudsmit, N, Coleman, E, Harkavy-Friedman, J, Yale, S, Rosenfield, PJ, Malaspina, D (2004). Olfactory identification and WAIS-R performance in deficit and nondeficit schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Research 69, 55–65.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
*Silver, H, Feldman, P, Bilker, W, Gur, RC (2003). Working memory deficit as a core neuropsychological dysfunction in schizophrenia. American Journal of Psychiatry 160, 1809–1816.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
*Simon, AE, Giacomini, V, Ferrero, F, Mohr, S (2003). Is executive function associated with symptom severity in schizophrenia? European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience 253, 216–218.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
*Stirling, J, Hellewell, J, Blakey, A, Deakin, W (2006). Thought disorder in schizophrenia is associated with both executive dysfunction and circumscribed impairments in semantic function. Psychological Medicine 36, 475–484.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
*Stirling, J, White, C, Lewis, S, Hopkins, R, Tantam, D, Huddy, A, Montague, L (2003). Neurocognitive function and outcome in first-episode schizophrenia: a 10-year follow-up of an epidemiological cohort. Schizophrenia Research 65, 75–86.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
*Stolar, N, Berenbaum, H, Banich, MT, Barch, D (1994). Neuropsychological correlates of alogia and affective flattening in schizophrenia. Biological Psychiatry 35, 164–172.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
*Strauss, ME, Buchanan, RW, Hale, J (1993). Relations between attentional deficits and clinical symptoms in schizophrenic outpatients. Psychiatry Research 47, 205–213.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
*Sullivan, EV, Shear, PK, Zipursky, RB, Sagar, HJ, Pfefferbaum, A (1994). A deficit profile of executive, memory, and motor functions in schizophrenia. Biological Psychiatry 36, 641–653.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
*Tandon, R, DeQuardo, JR, Taylor, SF, McGrath, M, Jibson, M, Eiser, A, Goldman, M (2000). Phasic and enduring negative symptoms in schizophrenia: biological markers and relationship to outcome. Schizophrenia Research 45, 191–201.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
*Tiryaki, A, Yazici, MK, Anil, AE, Kabakci, E, Karaagaoglu, E, Gogus, AR (2003). Examination of the characteristics of the deficit schizophrenia patients. European Archives of Psychiatry Clinical Neuroscience 253, 221–227.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
*Tonioni, S, Michelin, P, Sartori, GE (1995). Neuropsychological survey of the positive and negative symptoms of schizophrenia [in Italian]. Giornale Italiano di Psicología 22, 395–416.Google Scholar
*Twamley, EW, Palmer, BW, Jeste, DV, Taylor, MJ, Heaton, RK (2006). Transient and executive function working memory in schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Research 87, 185–190.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
*Van der Does, AJ, Dingemans, PM, Linszen, DH, Nugter, MA, Scholte, WF (1993). Symptom dimensions and cognitive and social functioning in recent-onset schizophrenia. Psychological Medicine 23, 745–753.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
*Verdoux, H, Liraud, F, Bourgeois, M (1999). The association of neuropsychological deficits to clinical symptoms in first admission subjects with psychotic disorders. Schizophrenia Research 37, 198–201.Google ScholarPubMed
*Voruganti, LN, Heslegrave, RJ, Awad, AG (1997). Neurocognitive correlates of positive and negative syndromes in schizophrenia. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry 42, 1066–1071.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
*Wang, X, Yao, S, Kirkpatrick, B, Shi, C, Yi, J (2008). Psychopathology and neuropsychological impairments in deficit and nondeficit schizophrenia of Chinese origin. Psychiatry Research 158, 195–205.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
*Waters, FA, Badcock, JC, Maybery, MT, Michie, PT (2003). Inhibition in schizophrenia: association with auditory hallucinations. Schizophrenia Research 62, 275–280.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Weinberger, DR (1988). Schizophrenia and the frontal lobe. Trends in Neuroscience 11, 367–370.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Weinstein, S, Werker, JF, Vouloumanos, A, Woodward, TS, Ngan, ET (2006). Do you hear what I hear? Neural correlates of thought disorder during listening to speech in schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Research 86, 130–137.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
*Woodward, TS, Ruff, CC, Thornton, AE, Moritz, S, Liddle, PF (2003). Methodological considerations regarding the association of Stroop and verbal fluency performance with the symptoms of schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Research 61, 207–214.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
*Zakzanis, KK (1998). Neuropsychological correlates of positive vs. negative schizophrenic symptomatology. Schizophrenia Research 29, 227–233.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed