Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-dsjbd Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-04T14:39:19.751Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Effort-cost decision-making in psychosis and depression: could a similar behavioral deficit arise from disparate psychological and neural mechanisms?

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  11 September 2017

A. J. Culbreth ,
E. K. Moran  and
D. M. Barch
A. J. Culbreth*
Affiliation:
Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Washington University in Saint Louis, St. Louis, MO, USA
E. K. Moran
Affiliation:
Department of Psychiatry, Washington University in Saint Louis, St. Louis, MO, USA
D. M. Barch
Affiliation:
Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Washington University in Saint Louis, St. Louis, MO, USA Department of Psychiatry, Washington University in Saint Louis, St. Louis, MO, USA Department of Radiology, Washington University in Saint Louis, St. Louis, MO, USA
*
*Address for correspondence: A. J. Culbreth, Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, Washington University in St. Louis, Box 1125, One Brookings Drive, St. Louis, MO 63130, USA. (Email: aculbreth@wustl.edu)
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Motivational impairment is a common feature of both depression and psychosis; however, the psychological and neural mechanisms that give rise to motivational impairment in these disorders are poorly understood. Recent research has suggested that aberrant effort-cost decision-making (ECDM) may be a potential contributor to motivational impairment in both psychosis and depression. ECDM refers to choices that individuals make regarding the amount of ‘work’ they are willing to expend to obtain a certain outcome or reward. Recent experimental work has suggested that those with psychosis and depression may be less willing to expend effort to obtain rewards compared with controls, and that this effort deficit is related to motivational impairment in both disorders. In the current review, we aim to summarize the current literature on ECDM in psychosis and depression, providing evidence for transdiagnostic impairment. Next, we discuss evidence for the hypothesis that a seemingly similar behavioral ECDM deficit might arise from disparate psychological and neural mechanisms. Specifically, we argue that effort deficits in psychosis might be largely driven by deficits in cognitive control and the neural correlates of cognitive control processes, while effort deficits in depression might be largely driven by reduced reward responsivity and the associated neural correlates of reward responsivity. Finally, we will provide some discussion regarding future directions, as well as interpretative challenges to consider when examining ECDM transdiagnostically.

Keywords

Cognitive controldepressioneffort-cost decision-makingpsychosisreward responsivityschizophrenia.
Type
Review Article
Information
Psychological Medicine , Volume 48 , Issue 6 , April 2018 , pp. 889 - 904
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2017 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Abler, B, Greenhouse, I, Ongur, D, Walter, H, Heckers, S (2008). Abnormal reward system activation in mania. Neuropsychopharmacology 33, 2217–2227.Google Scholar
Alloy, LB, Olino, T, Freed, RD, Nusslock, R (2016). Role of reward sensitivity and processing in major depressive and bipolar spectrum disorders. Behavior Therapy 47, 600–621.Google Scholar
Alústiza, I, Radua, J, Pla, M, Martin, R, Ortuño, F (2017). Meta-analysis of functional magnetic resonance imaging studies of timing and cognitive control in schizophrenia and bipolar disorder: evidence of a primary time deficit. Schizophrenia Research.Google Scholar
Angold, A, Costello, E (1987). Mood and Feelings Questionnaire (MFQ). Developmental Epidemiology Program, Duke University: Durham, NC.Google Scholar
Arrondo, G, Segarra, N, Metastasio, A, Ziauddeen, H, Spencer, J, Reinders, NR, Dudas, RB, Robbins, TW, Fletcher, PC, Murray, GK (2015). Reduction in ventral striatal activity when anticipating a reward in depression and schizophrenia: a replicated cross-diagnostic finding. Frontiers in Psychology 6, 1280.Google Scholar
Barbalat, G, Chambon, V, Domenech, PJ, Ody, C, Koechlin, E, Franck, N, Farrer, C (2011). Impaired hierarchical control within the lateral prefrontal cortex in schizophrenia. Biological Psychiatry 70, 73–80.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Barbalat, G, Chambon, V, Franck, N, Koechlin, E, Farrer, C (2009). Organization of cognitive control within the lateral prefrontal cortex in schizophrenia. Archives of General Psychiatry 66, 377–386.Google Scholar
Barch, D, Carter, C, Gold, J, Johnson, S, Kring, A, MacDonald, A, Pizzagalli, D, Ragland, J, Silverstein, S, Strauss, M (2017). Explicit and implicit reinforcement learning across the psychosis spectrum. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 126, 694–711.Google Scholar
Barch, DM, Carter, CS, Braver, TS, McDonald, A, Sabb, FW, Noll, DC, Cohen, JD (2001). Selective deficits in prefrontal cortex regions in medication naive schizophrenia patients. Archives of General Psychiatry 50, 280–288.Google Scholar
Barch, DM, Carter, CS, Cohen, JD (2003a). Context processing deficit in schizophrenia: diagnostic specificity, 4-week course, and relationships to clinical symptoms. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 112, 132–143.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Barch, DM, Carter, CS, MacDonald, AW, Braver, TS, Cohen, JD (2003b). Context-processing deficits in schizophrenia: diagnostic specificity, 4-week course, and relationships to clinical symptoms. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 112, 132–143.Google Scholar
Barch, DM, Sheffield, JM (2017). Cognitive control in schizophrenia. In The Wiley Handbook of Cognitive Control (ed. Egner, T.), pp. 556–580. John Wiley and Sons.Google Scholar
Barch, DM, Treadway, MT, Schoen, N (2014). Effort, anhedonia, and function in schizophrenia: reduced effort allocation predicts amotivation and functional impairment. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 123, 387–397.Google Scholar
Beck, A, Crain, AL, Solberg, LI, Unützer, J, Glasgow, RE, Maciosek, MV, Whitebird, R (2011). Severity of depression and magnitude of productivity loss. The Annals of Family Medicine 9, 305–311.Google Scholar
Belden, AC, Irvin, K, Hajcak, G, Kappenman, ES, Kelly, D, Karlow, S, Luby, JL, Barch, DM (2016). Neural correlates of reward processing in depressed and healthy preschool-age children. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry 55, 1081–1089.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Braver, TS (2012). The variable nature of cognitive control: a dual mechanisms framework. Trends in Cognitive Sciences 16, 106–113.Google Scholar
Bress, JN, Hajcak, G (2013). Self-report and behavioral measures of reward sensitivity predict the feedback negativity. Psychophysiology 50, 610–616.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bress, JN, Smith, E, Foti, D, Klein, DN, Hajcak, G (2012). Neural response to reward and depressive symptoms in late childhood to early adolescence. Biological Psychology 89, 156–162.Google Scholar
Chambon, V, Franck, N, Koechlin, E, Fakra, E, Ciuperca, G, Azorin, JM, Farrer, C (2008). The architecture of cognitive control in schizophrenia. Brain 131, 962–970.Google Scholar
Cho, RY, Konecky, RO, Carter, CS (2006). Impairments in frontal cortical gamma synchrony and cognitive control in schizophrenia. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 103, 19878–19883.Google Scholar
Clawson, A, Clayson, PE, Larson, MJ (2013). Cognitive control adjustments and conflict adaptation in major depressive disorder. Psychophysiology 50, 711–721.Google Scholar
Cléry-Melin, M-L, Schmidt, L, Lafargue, G, Baup, N, Fossati, P, Pessiglione, M (2011). Why don't you try harder? An investigation of effort production in major depression. PLoS ONE 6, e23178.Google Scholar
Cohen, AS, Minor, KS (2010). Emotional experience in patients with schizophrenia revisited: meta-analysis of laboratory studies. Schizophrenia Bulletin 36, 143–150.Google Scholar
Cohen, JD, Barch, DM, Carter, C, Servan-Schreiber, D (1999). Context-processing deficits in schizophrenia: converging evidence from three theoretically motivated cognitive tasks. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 108, 120–133.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Culbreth, A, Westbrook, A, Barch, D (2016). Negative symptoms are associated with an increased subjective cost of cognitive effort. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 125, 528–536.Google Scholar
Cuthbert, BN, Insel, TR (2013). Toward the future of psychiatric diagnosis: the seven pillars of RDoC. BMC Medicine 11, 126.Google Scholar
De Lissnyder, E, Koster, EH, Everaert, J, Schacht, R, Van den Abeele, D, De Raedt, R (2012). Internal cognitive control in clinical depression: general but no emotion-specific impairments. Psychiatry Research 199, 124–130.Google Scholar
Demeyer, I, Koster, E, De Lissnyder, E, De Raedt, R (2012). Cognitive control predicts recurrent symptoms of depression. Behaviour Research and Therapy 50, 292–297.Google Scholar
Diler, RS, Pan, LA, Segreti, A, Ladouceur, CD, Forbes, E, Cela, SR, Almeida, JR, Birmaher, B, Axelson, DA, Phillips, ML (2014). Differential anterior cingulate activity during response inhibition in depressed adolescents with bipolar and unipolar major depressive disorder. Journal of the Canadian Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 23, 10–19.Google Scholar
Docx, L, de la Asuncion, J, Sabbe, B, Hoste, L, Baeten, R, Warnaerts, N, Morrens, M (2015). Effort discounting and its association with negative symptoms in schizophrenia. Cognitive Neuropsychiatry 20, 172–185.Google Scholar
Dosenbach, NU, Fair, DA, Cohen, AL, Schlaggar, BL, Petersen, SE (2008). A dual-networks architecture of top-down control. Trends in Cognitive Science 12, 99–105.Google Scholar
Dosenbach, NU, Fair, DA, Miezin, FM, Cohen, AL, Wenger, KK, Dosenbach, RA, Fox, MD, Snyder, AZ, Vincent, JL, Raichle, ME, Schlaggar, BL, Petersen, SE (2007). Distinct brain networks for adaptive and stable task control in humans. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 104, 11073–11078.Google Scholar
Dowd, EC, Barch, DM (2012). Pavlovian reward prediction and receipt in schizophrenia: relationship to anhedonia. PLoS ONE 7, e35622.Google Scholar
Edwards, BG, Barch, DM, Braver, TS (2010). Improving prefrontal cortex function in schizophrenia through focused training of cognitive control. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience 4, 32.Google Scholar
Elvevag, B, Duncan, J, McKenna, PJ (2000). The use of cognitive context in schizophrenia: an investigation. Psychological Medicine 30, 885–897.Google Scholar
Engels, AS, Heller, W, Spielberg, JM, Warren, SL, Sutton, BP, Banich, MT, Miller, GA (2010). Co-occurring anxiety influences patterns of brain activity in depression. Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience 10, 141–156.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fales, CL, Barch, DM, Rundle, MM, Mintun, MA, Snyder, AZ, Cohen, JD, Mathews, J, Sheline, YI (2008). Altered emotional interference processing in affective and cognitive-control brain circuitry in major depression. Biological Psychiatry 63, 377–384.Google Scholar
Fervaha, G, Duncan, M, Foussias, G, Agid, O, Faulkner, GE, Remington, G (2015). Effort-based decision making as an objective paradigm for the assessment of motivational deficits in schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Research 168, 483–490.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fervaha, G, Graff-Guerrero, A, Zakzanis, KK, Foussias, G, Agid, O, Remington, G (2013). Incentive motivation deficits in schizophrenia reflect effort computation impairments during cost-benefit decision-making. Journal of Psychiatric Research 47, 1590–1596.Google Scholar
Foland-Ross, LC, Hamilton, JP, Joormann, J, Berman, MG, Jonides, J, Gotlib, IH (2013). The neural basis of difficulties disengaging from negative irrelevant material in major depression. Psychological Science 24, 334–344.Google Scholar
Forbes, EE, Hariri, AR, Martin, SL, Silk, JS, Moyles, DL, Fisher, PM, Brown, SM, Ryan, ND, Birmaher, B, Axelson, DA (2009). Altered striatal activation predicting real-world positive affect in adolescent major depressive disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry 166, 64–73.Google Scholar
Foti, D, Carlson, JM, Sauder, CL, Proudfit, GH (2014). Reward dysfunction in major depression: multimodal neuroimaging evidence for refining the melancholic phenotype. NeuroImage 101, 50–58.Google Scholar
Gilleen, J, Shergill, S, Kapur, S (2015). Impaired subjective well-being in schizophrenia is associated with reduced anterior cingulate activity during reward processing. Psychological Medicine 45, 589–600.Google Scholar
Gold, JM, Kool, W, Botvinick, MM, Hubzin, L, August, S, Waltz, JA (2014). Cognitive effort avoidance and detection in people with schizophrenia. Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience 15, 145–154.Google Scholar
Gold, JM, Strauss, GP, Waltz, JA, Robinson, BM, Brown, JK, Frank, MJ (2013). Negative symptoms of schizophrenia are associated with abnormal effort-cost computations. Biological Psychiatry 74, 130–136.Google Scholar
Gold, JM, Waltz, JA, Frank, MJ (2015). Effort cost computation in schizophrenia: a commentary on the recent literature. Biological Psychiatry 78, 747–753.Google Scholar
Gotlib, IH, Hamilton, JP, Cooney, RE, Singh, MK, Henry, ML, Joormann, J (2010). Neural processing of reward and loss in girls at risk for major depression. Archives of General Psychiatry 67, 380–387.Google Scholar
Hartmann, MN, Hager, OM, Reimann, AV, Chumbley, JR, Kirschner, M, Seifritz, E, Tobler, PN, Kaiser, S (2015a). Apathy but not diminished expression in schizophrenia is associated with discounting of monetary rewards by physical effort. Schizophrenia Bulletin 41, 503–512.Google Scholar
Hartmann, MN, Hager, OM, Tobler, PN, Kaiser, S (2013). Parabolic discounting of monetary rewards by physical effort. Behavioural Processes 100, 192–196.Google Scholar
Hartmann, MN, Kluge, A, Kalis, A, Mojzisch, A, Tobler, PN, Kaiser, S (2015b). Apathy in schizophrenia as a deficit in the generation of options for action. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 124, 309–318.Google Scholar
Harvey, PD, Koren, D, Reichenberg, A, Bowie, CR (2006). Negative symptoms and cognitive deficits: what is the nature of their relationship? Schizophrenia Bulletin 32, 250–258.Google Scholar
Heerey, EA, Bell-Warren, KR, Gold, JM (2008). Decision-making impairments in the context of intact reward sensitivity in schizophrenia. Biological Psychiatry 64, 62–69.Google Scholar
Heerey, EA, Gold, JM (2007). Patients with schizophrenia demonstrate dissociation between affective experience and motivated behavior. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 116, 268–278.Google Scholar
Henderson, D, Poppe, AB, Barch, DM, Carter, CS, Gold, JM, Ragland, JD, Silverstein, SM, Strauss, ME, MacDonald, AW III (2012). Optimization of a goal maintenance task for use in clinical applications. Schizophrenia Bulletin 38, 104–113.Google Scholar
Henriques, JB, Davidson, RJ (2000). Decreased responsiveness to reward in depression. Cognition & Emotion 14, 711–724.Google Scholar
Henriques, JB, Glowacki, JM, Davidson, RJ (1994). Reward fails to alter response bias in depression. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 103, 460–466.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hershenberg, R, Satterthwaite, TD, Daldal, A, Katchmar, N, Moore, TM, Kable, JW, Wolf, DH (2016). Diminished effort on a progressive ratio task in both unipolar and bipolar depression. Journal of Affective Disorders 196, 97–100.Google Scholar
Holmes, AJ, MacDonald, A, Carter, CS, Barch, DM, Stenger, VA, Cohen, JD (2005). Prefrontal functioning during context processing in schizophrenia and major depression: an event-related fMRI study. Schizophrenia Research 76, 199–206.Google Scholar
Holmes, AJ, Pizzagalli, DA (2008). Spatiotemporal dynamics of error processing dysfunctions in major depressive disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry 65, 179–188.Google Scholar
Horan, WP, Foti, D, Hajcak, G, Wynn, JK, Green, MF (2012). Impaired neural response to internal but not external feedback in schizophrenia. Psychological Medicine 42, 1637–1647.Google Scholar
Horan, WP, Kring, AM, Gur, RE, Reise, SP, Blanchard, JJ (2011). Development and psychometric validation of the clinical assessment interview for negative symptoms (CAINS). Schizophrenia Research 132, 140–145.Google Scholar
Horan, WP, Reddy, LF, Barch, DM, Buchanan, RW, Dunayevich, E, Gold, JM, Marder, SR, Wynn, JK, Young, JW, Green, MF (2015). Effort-based decision-making paradigms for clinical trials in schizophrenia: part 2 – external validity and correlates. Schizophrenia Bulletin 41, 1055–1065.Google Scholar
Huang, J, Yang, X-H, Lan, Y, Zhu, C-Y, Liu, X-Q, Wang, Y-F, Cheung, EF, Xie, G-R, Chan, RC (2016). Neural substrates of the impaired effort expenditure decision making in schizophrenia. Neuropsychology 30, 685–696.Google Scholar
Joormann, J, Tanovic, E (2015). Cognitive vulnerability to depression: examining cognitive control and emotion regulation. Current Opinion in Psychology 4, 86–92.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kaiser, S, Unger, J, Kiefer, M, Markela, J, Mundt, C, Weisbrod, M (2003). Executive control deficit in depression: event-related potentials in a Go/Nogo task. Psychiatry Research: Neuroimaging 122, 169–184.Google Scholar
Kirkpatrick, B, Strauss, GP, Nguyen, L, Fischer, BA, Daniel, DG, Cienfuegos, A, Marder, SR (2010). The brief negative symptom scale: psychometric properties. Schizophrenia Bulletin 37, 300–305.Google Scholar
Knutson, B, Bhanji, JP, Cooney, RE, Atlas, LY, Gotlib, IH (2008). Neural responses to monetary incentives in major depression. Biological Psychiatry 63, 686–692.Google Scholar
Kool, W, McGuire, JT, Rosen, ZB, Botvinick, MM (2010). Decision making and the avoidance of cognitive demand. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 139, 665–682.Google Scholar
Kring, AM, Moran, EK (2008). Emotional response deficits in schizophrenia: insights from affective science. Schizophrenia Bulletin 34, 819–834.Google Scholar
Ladouceur, CD, Slifka, JS, Dahl, RE, Birmaher, B, Axelson, DA, Ryan, ND (2012). Altered error-related brain activity in youth with major depression. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience 2, 351–362.Google Scholar
Lesh, TA, Westphal, AJ, Niendam, TA, Yoon, JH, Minzenberg, MJ, Ragland, JD, Solomon, M, Carter, CS (2013). Proactive and reactive cognitive control and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex dysfunction in first episode schizophrenia. Neuroimage: Clinical 2, 590–599.Google Scholar
Liu, H, Sarapas, C, Shankman, SA (2016). Anticipatory reward deficits in melancholia. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 125, 631–640.Google Scholar
Liu, W-H, Wang, L-Z, Shang, H-R, Shen, Y, Li, Z, Cheung, EF, Chan, RC (2014). The influence of anhedonia on feedback negativity in major depressive disorder. Neuropsychologia 53, 213–220.Google Scholar
Llerena, K, Wynn, JK, Hajcak, G, Green, MF, Horan, WP (2016). Patterns and reliability of EEG during error monitoring for internal versus external feedback in schizophrenia. International Journal of Psychophysiology 105, 39–46.Google Scholar
Luking, KR, Pagliaccio, D, Luby, JL, Barch, DM (2015). Child gain approach and loss avoidance behavior: relationships with depression risk, negative mood, and anhedonia. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry 54, 643–651.Google Scholar
MacDonald, A, Carter, CS, Kerns, JG, Ursu, S, Barch, DM, Holmes, AJ, Stenger, VA, Cohen, JD (2005). Specificity of prefrontal dysfunction and context processing deficts to schizophrenia in a never medicated first-episode psychotic sample. American Journal of Psychiatry 162, 475–484.Google Scholar
MacDonald, AW III, Carter, CS (2003). Event-related FMRI study of context processing in dorsolateral prefrontal cortex of patients with schizophrenia. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 112, 689–697.Google Scholar
MacDonald, AW III, Thermenos, HW, Barch, DM, Seidman, LJ (2009). Imaging genetic liability to schizophrenia: systematic review of FMRI studies of patients’ nonpsychotic relatives. Schizophrenia Bulletin 35, 1142–1162.Google Scholar
McCarthy, JM, Treadway, MT, Bennett, ME, Blanchard, JJ (2016). Inefficient effort allocation and negative symptoms in individuals with schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Research 170, 278–284.Google Scholar
Minzenberg, MJ, Firl, AJ, Yoon, JH, Gomes, GC, Reinking, C, Carter, CS (2010). Gamma oscillatory power is impaired during cognitive control independent of medication status in first-episode schizophrenia. Neuropsychopharmacology 35, 2590–2599.Google Scholar
Minzenberg, MJ, Laird, AR, Thelen, S, Carter, CS, Glahn, DC (2009). Meta-analysis of 41 functional neuroimaging studies of executive function in schizophrenia. Archives of General Psychiatry 66, 811–822.Google Scholar
Mitterschiffthaler, M, Williams, S, Walsh, N, Cleare, A, Donaldson, C, Scott, J, Fu, C (2008). Neural basis of the emotional Stroop interference effect in major depression. Psychological Medicine 38, 247–256.Google Scholar
Moran, EK, Culbreth, AJ, Barch, DM (2017). Ecological momentary assessment of negative symptoms in schizophrenia: relationships to effort-based decision making and reinforcement learning. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 126, 96–105.Google Scholar
Mote, J, Minzenberg, MJ, Carter, CS, Kring, AM (2014). Deficits in anticipatory but not consummatory pleasure in people with recent-onset schizophrenia spectrum disorders. Schizophrenia Research 159, 76–79.Google Scholar
Murphy, F, Michael, A, Sahakian, B (2012). Emotion modulates cognitive flexibility in patients with major depression. Psychological Medicine 42, 1373–1382.Google Scholar
Nelson, BD, McGowan, SK, Sarapas, C, Robison-Andrew, EJ, Altman, SE, Campbell, ML, Gorka, SM, Katz, AC, Shankman, SA (2013). Biomarkers of threat and reward sensitivity demonstrate unique associations with risk for psychopathology. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 122, 662–671.Google Scholar
Nelson, BD, Shankman, SA, Proudfit, GH (2014). Intolerance of uncertainty mediates reduced reward anticipation in major depressive disorder. Journal of Affective Disorders 158, 108–113.Google Scholar
Ng, J, Chan, HY, Schlaghecken, F (2012). Dissociating effects of subclinical anxiety and depression on cognitive control. Advances in Cognitive Psychology 8, 38–49.Google Scholar
Nielsen, MO, Rostrup, E, Wulff, S, Bak, N, Broberg, BV, Lublin, H, Kapur, S, Glenthoj, B (2012a). Improvement of brain reward abnormalities by antipsychotic monotherapy in schizophrenia. Archives of General Psychiatry 69, 1195–1204.Google Scholar
Nielsen, MØ, Rostrup, E, Wulff, S, Bak, N, Lublin, H, Kapur, S, Glenthøj, B (2012b). Alterations of the brain reward system in antipsychotic naive schizophrenia patients. Biological Psychiatry 71, 898–905.Google Scholar
Nuechterlein, KH, Edell, WS, Norris, M, Dawson, ME (1986). Attentional vulnerability indicators, thought disorder, and negative symptoms. Schizophrenia Bulletin 12, 408–426.Google Scholar
O'Leary, DS, Flaum, M, Kesler, ML, Flashman, LA, Arndt, S, Andreasen, NC (2000). Cognitive correlates of the negative, disorganized, and psychotic symptom dimensions of schizophrenia. The Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences 12, 4–15.Google Scholar
Olino, TM, Silk, JS, Osterritter, C, Forbes, EE (2015). Social reward in youth at risk for depression: a preliminary investigation of subjective and neural differences. Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology 25, 711–721.Google Scholar
Park, IH, Lee, BC, Kim, J-J, Kim, JI, Koo, M-S (2017). Effort-based reinforcement processing and functional connectivity underlying amotivation in medicated patients with depression and schizophrenia. Journal of Neuroscience 37, 4370–4380.Google Scholar
Paulus, MP (2015). Cognitive control in depression and anxiety: out of control? Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences 1, 113–120.Google Scholar
Pechtel, P, Dutra, SJ, Goetz, EL, Pizzagalli, DA (2013). Blunted reward responsiveness in remitted depression. Journal of Psychiatric Research 47, 1864–1869.Google Scholar
Peckham, AD, McHugh, RK, Otto, MW (2010). A meta-analysis of the magnitude of biased attention in depression. Depression and Anxiety 27, 1135–1142.Google Scholar
Pizzagalli, DA, Holmes, AJ, Dillon, DG, Goetz, EL, Birk, JL, Bogdan, R, Dougherty, DD, Iosifescu, DV, Rauch, SL, Fava, M (2009). Reduced caudate and nucleus accumbens response to rewards in unmedicated individuals with major depressive disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry 166, 702–710.Google Scholar
Pizzagalli, DA, Iosifescu, D, Hallett, LA, Ratner, KG, Fava, M (2008). Reduced hedonic capacity in major depressive disorder: evidence from a probabilistic reward task. Journal of Psychiatric Research 43, 76–87.Google Scholar
Pizzagalli, DA, Jahn, AL, O'Shea, JP (2005). Toward an objective characterization of an anhedonic phenotype: a signal-detection approach. Biological Psychiatry 57, 319–327.Google Scholar
Poppe, AB, Barch, DM, Carter, CS, Gold, JM, Ragland, JD, Silverstein, SM, MacDonald, AW III (2016). Reduced frontoparietal activity in schizophrenia is linked to a specific deficit in goal maintenance: a multisite functional imaging study. Schizophrenia Bulletin 42, 1149–1157.Google Scholar
Prévost, C, Pessiglione, M, Météreau, E, Cléry-Melin, M-L, Dreher, J-C (2010). Separate valuation subsystems for delay and effort decision costs. Journal of Neuroscience 30, 14080–14090.Google Scholar
Radua, J, Schmidt, A, Borgwardt, S, Heinz, A, Schlagenhauf, F, McGuire, P, Fusar-Poli, P (2015). Ventral striatal activation during reward processing in psychosis: a neurofunctional meta-analysis. JAMA Psychiatry 72, 1243–1251.Google Scholar
Reddy, LF, Horan, WP, Barch, DM, Buchanan, RW, Dunayevich, E, Gold, JM, Lyons, N, Marder, SR, Treadway, MT, Wynn, JK (2015). Effort-based decision-making paradigms for clinical trials in schizophrenia: part 1 – psychometric characteristics of 5 paradigms. Schizophrenia Bulletin 41, 1045–1054.Google Scholar
Robinson, OJ, Cools, R, Carlisi, CO, Sahakian, BJ, Drevets, WC (2012). Ventral striatum response during reward and punishment reversal learning in unmedicated major depressive disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry 169, 152–159.Google Scholar
Rottenberg, J, Gross, JJ, Gotlib, IH (2005). Emotion context insensitivity in major depressive disorder. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 114, 627–639.Google Scholar
Rzepa, E, Fisk, J, McCabe, C (2017). Blunted neural response to anticipation, effort and consummation of reward and aversion in adolescents with depression symptomatology. Journal of Psychopharmacology 31, 303–311.Google Scholar
Salamone, JD, Correa, M, Farrar, A, Mingote, SM (2007). Effort-related functions of nucleus accumbens dopamine and associated forebrain circuits. Psychopharmacology 191, 461–482.Google Scholar
Sarkar, S, Hillner, K, Velligan, DI (2015). Conceptualization and treatment of negative symptoms in schizophrenia. World Journal of Psychiatry 5, 352–361.Google Scholar
Saunders, B, Jentzsch, I (2014). Reactive and proactive control adjustments under increased depressive symptoms: insights from the classic and emotional-face Stroop task. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 67, 884–898.Google Scholar
Schlagenhauf, F, Sterzer, P, Schmack, K, Ballmaier, M, Rapp, M, Wrase, J, Juckel, G, Gallinat, J, Heinz, A (2009). Reward feedback alterations in unmedicated schizophrenia patients: relevance for delusions. Biological Psychiatry 65, 1032–1039.Google Scholar
Shankman, SA, Klein, DN, Tenke, CE, Bruder, GE (2007). Reward sensitivity in depression: a biobehavioral study. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 116, 95–104.Google Scholar
Shankman, SA, Nelson, BD, Sarapas, C, Robison-Andrew, EJ, Campbell, ML, Altman, SE, McGowan, SK, Katz, AC, Gorka, SM (2013). A psychophysiological investigation of threat and reward sensitivity in individuals with panic disorder and/or major depressive disorder. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 122, 322–338.Google Scholar
Sharp, C, Kim, S, Herman, L, Pane, H, Reuter, T, Strathearn, L (2014). Major depression in mothers predicts reduced ventral striatum activation in adolescent female offspring with and without depression. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 123, 298–309.Google Scholar
Sherdell, L, Waugh, CE, Gotlib, IH (2012). Anticipatory pleasure predicts motivation for reward in major depression. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 121, 51–60.Google Scholar
Simon, JJ, Biller, A, Walther, S, Roesch-Ely, D, Stippich, C, Weisbrod, M, Kaiser, S (2010). Neural correlates of reward processing in schizophrenia – relationship to apathy and depression. Schizophrenia Research 118, 154–161.Google Scholar
Snitz, BE, MacDonald, A III, Cohen, JD, Cho, RY, Becker, T, Carter, CS (2005). Lateral and medial hypofrontality in first-episode schizophrenia: functional activity in a medication-naive state and effects of short-term atypical antipsychotic treatment. American Journal of Psychiatry 162, 2322–2329.Google Scholar
Snitz, BE, Macdonald, AW III, Carter, CS (2006). Cognitive deficits in unaffected first-degree relatives of schizophrenia patients: a meta-analytic review of putative endophenotypes. Schizophrenia Bulletin 32, 179–194.Google Scholar
Snyder, HR (2013). Major depressive disorder is associated with broad impairments on neuropsychological measures of executive function: a meta-analysis and review. Psychological Bulletin 139, 81–132.Google Scholar
Strauss, GP, Gold, JM (2012). A new perspective on anhedonia in schizophrenia. American Journal of Psychiatry 169, 364–373.Google Scholar
Strauss, GP, Hong, LE, Gold, JM, Buchanan, RW, McMahon, RP, Keller, WR, Fischer, BA, Catalano, LT, Culbreth, AJ, Carpenter, WT (2012). Factor structure of the brief negative symptom scale. Schizophrenia Research 142, 96–98.Google Scholar
Strauss, GP, Whearty, KM, Morra, LF, Sullivan, SK, Ossenfort, KL, Frost, KH (2016). Avolition in schizophrenia is associated with reduced willingness to expend effort for reward on a Progressive Ratio task. Schizophrenia Research 170, 198–204.Google Scholar
Stringaris, A, Vidal-Ribas Belil, P, Artiges, E, Lemaitre, H, Gollier-Briant, F, Wolke, S, Vulser, H, Miranda, R, Penttila, J, Struve, M, Fadai, T, Kappel, V, Grimmer, Y, Goodman, R, Poustka, L, Conrod, P, Cattrell, A, Banaschewski, T, Bokde, AL, Bromberg, U, Buchel, C, Flor, H, Frouin, V, Gallinat, J, Garavan, H, Gowland, P, Heinz, A, Ittermann, B, Nees, F, Papadopoulos, D, Paus, T, Smolka, MN, Walter, H, Whelan, R, Martinot, JL, Schumann, G, Paillere-Martinot, ML, Consortium, I (2015). The brain's response to reward anticipation and depression in adolescence: dimensionality, specificity, and longitudinal predictions in a community-based sample. American Journal of Psychiatry 172, 1215–1223.Google Scholar
Subramaniam, K, Hooker, CI, Biagianti, B, Fisher, M, Nagarajan, S, Vinogradov, S (2015). Neural signal during immediate reward anticipation in schizophrenia: relationship to real-world motivation and function. Neuroimage: Clinical 9, 153–163.Google Scholar
Szöke, A, Trandafir, A, Dupont, M-E, Méary, A, Schürhoff, F, Leboyer, M (2008). Longitudinal studies of cognition in schizophrenia: meta-analysis. The British Journal of Psychiatry 192, 248–257.Google Scholar
Telzer, EH, Fuligni, AJ, Lieberman, MD, Galván, A (2014). Neural sensitivity to eudaimonic and hedonic rewards differentially predict adolescent depressive symptoms over time. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 111, 6600–6605.Google Scholar
Treadway, MT, Bossaller, NA, Shelton, RC, Zald, DH (2012). Effort-based decision-making in major depressive disorder: a translational model of motivational anhedonia. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 121, 553–558.Google Scholar
Treadway, MT, Buckholtz, JW, Schwartzman, AN, Lambert, WE, Zald, DH (2009). Worth the ‘EEfRT’? The effort expenditure for rewards task as an objective measure of motivation and anhedonia. PLoS ONE 4, e6598.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Treadway, MT, Peterman, JS, Zald, DH, Park, S (2015). Impaired effort allocation in patients with schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Research 161, 382–385.Google Scholar
Ubl, B, Kuehner, C, Kirsch, P, Ruttorf, M, Diener, C, Flor, H (2015). Altered neural reward and loss processing and prediction error signalling in depression. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience 10, 1102–1112.Google Scholar
Vanderhasselt, M-A, De Raedt, R, Dillon, DG, Dutra, SJ, Brooks, N, Pizzagalli, DA (2012). Decreased cognitive control in response to negative information in patients with remitted depression: an event-related potential study. Journal of Psychiatry & Neuroscience 37, 250–258.Google Scholar
Vrieze, E, Pizzagalli, DA, Demyttenaere, K, Hompes, T, Sienaert, P, de Boer, P, Schmidt, M, Claes, S (2013). Reduced reward learning predicts outcome in major depressive disorder. Biological Psychiatry 73, 639–645.Google Scholar
Wagner, G, Sinsel, E, Sobanski, T, Köhler, S, Marinou, V, Mentzel, H-J, Sauer, H, Schlösser, RG (2006). Cortical inefficiency in patients with unipolar depression: an event-related FMRI study with the Stroop task. Biological Psychiatry 59, 958–965.Google Scholar
Waltz, JA, Schweitzer, JB, Ross, TJ, Kurup, PK, Salmeron, BJ, Rose, EJ, Gold, JM, Stein, EA (2010). Abnormal responses to monetary outcomes in cortex, but not in the basal ganglia, in schizophrenia. Neuropsychopharmacology 35, 2427–2439.Google Scholar
Wang, J, Huang, J, Yang, X-H, Lui, SS, Cheung, EF, Chan, RC (2015). Anhedonia in schizophrenia: deficits in both motivation and hedonic capacity. Schizophrenia Research 168, 465–474.Google Scholar
Weinberg, A, Liu, H, Hajcak, G, Shankman, SA (2015). Blunted neural response to rewards as a vulnerability factor for depression: results from a family study. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 124, 878–889.Google Scholar
Westbrook, A, Braver, TS (2016). Dopamine does double duty in motivating cognitive effort. Neuron 89, 695–710.Google Scholar
Westbrook, A, Kester, D, Braver, TS (2013). What is the subjective cost of cognitive effort? Load, trait, and aging effects revealed by economic preference. PLoS ONE 8, e68210.Google Scholar
Whitton, AE, Kakani, P, Foti, D, Van't Veer, A, Haile, A, Crowley, DJ, Pizzagalli, DA (2016). Blunted neural responses to reward in remitted major depression: a high-density event-related potential study. Biological Psychiatry: Cognitive Neuroscience and Neuroimaging 1, 87–95.Google Scholar
Wolf, DH, Satterthwaite, TD, Kantrowitz, JJ, Katchmar, N, Vandekar, L, Elliott, MA, Ruparel, K (2014). Amotivation in schizophrenia: integrated assessment with behavioral, clinical, and imaging measures. Schizophrenia Bulletin 40, 1328–1337.Google Scholar
Yang, X-H, Huang, J, Lan, Y, Zhu, C-Y, Liu, X-Q, Wang, Y-F, Cheung, EF, Xie, G-R, Chan, RC (2016). Diminished caudate and superior temporal gyrus responses to effort-based decision making in patients with first-episode major depressive disorder. Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry 64, 52–59.Google Scholar
Yang, X-H, Huang, J, Zhu, C-Y, Wang, Y-F, Cheung, EF, Chan, RC, Xie, G-R (2014). Motivational deficits in effort-based decision making in individuals with subsyndromal depression, first-episode and remitted depression patients. Psychiatry Research 220, 874–882.Google Scholar
Yoon, JH, Minzenberg, MJ, Ursu, S, Ryan Walter, BS, Wendelken, C, Ragland, JD, Carter, CS (2008). Association of dorsolateral prefrontal cortex dysfunction with disrupted coordinated brain activity in schizophrenia: relationship with impaired cognition, behavioral disorganization, and global function. American Journal of Psychiatry 165, 1006–1014.Google Scholar
Yoon, KL, LeMoult, J, Joormann, J (2014). Updating emotional content in working memory: a depression-specific deficit? Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry 45, 368–374.Google Scholar
Young, JW, Zhou, X, Geyer, MA (2010). Animal models of schizophrenia. In Behavioral Neurobiology of Schizophrenia and Its Treatment (ed. Swerdlow, N. R.), pp. 391–433. Springer: Berlin, Heidelberg.Google Scholar
Zhang, W-N, Chang, S-H, Guo, L-Y, Zhang, K-L, Wang, J (2013). The neural correlates of reward-related processing in major depressive disorder: a meta-analysis of functional magnetic resonance imaging studies. Journal of Affective Disorders 151, 531–539.Google Scholar