Translation, the process of mRNA-encoded protein synthesis, requires a complex apparatus, composed of the ribosome, tRNAs and additional protein factors, including aminoacyl tRNA synthetases. The ribosome provides the platform for proper assembly of mRNA, tRNAs and protein factors and carries the peptidyl-transferase activity. It consists of small and large subunits. The ribosomes are ribonucleoprotein particles with a ribosomal RNA core, to which multiple ribosomal proteins are bound. The sequence and structure of ribosomal RNAs, tRNAs, some of the ribosomal proteins and some of the additional protein factors are conserved in all kingdoms, underlying the common origin of the translation apparatus. Translation can be subdivided into several steps: initiation, elongation, termination and recycling. Of these, initiation is the most complex and the most divergent among the different kingdoms of life. A great amount of new structural, biochemical and genetic information on translation initiation has been accumulated in recent years, which led to the realization that initiation also shows a great degree of conservation throughout evolution. In this review, we summarize the available structural and functional data on translation initiation in the context of evolution, drawing parallels between eubacteria, archaea, and eukaryotes. We will start with an overview of the ribosome structure and of translation in general, placing emphasis on factors and processes with relevance to initiation. The major steps in initiation and the factors involved will be described, followed by discussion of the structure and function of the individual initiation factors throughout evolution. We will conclude with a summary of the available information on the kinetic and thermodynamic aspects of translation initiation.

Metals are commonly found as natural constituents of proteins. Since many such metals can interact specifically with their corresponding unfolded proteins in vitro, cofactor-binding prior to polypeptide folding may be a biological path to active metalloproteins. By interacting with the unfolded polypeptide, the metal may create local structure that initiates and directs the polypeptide-folding process. Here, we review recent literature that addresses the involvement of metals in protein-folding reactions in vitro. To date, the best characterized systems are simple one such as blue-copper proteins, heme-binding proteins, iron-sulfur-cluster proteins and synthetic metallopeptides. Taken together, the available data demonstrates that metals can play diverse roles: it is clear that many cofactors bind before polypeptide folding and influence the reaction; yet, some do not bind until a well-structured active site is formed. The significance of characterizing the effects of metals on protein conformational changes is underscored by the many human diseases that are directly linked to anomalous protein–metal interactions.

Volume 37 Number 2 (May 2004), pp. 147–195

Cell-penetrating peptides: from inception to application

Due to a correction error at the Press stage the title of this paper was incorrectly published with the word ‘small’ included. The correct title is given above.

The publisher apologizes to the authors and readers for this error.