1 See, for example, Nelson-Jones, Richard, ‘Diverse Goals for Multicultural Counselling and Therapy’, Counselling Psychology Quarterly, 15 (2002), pp. 133–143CrossRefGoogle Scholar ; Hall, Stuart, ‘Cultural Identity and Diaspora’, in Rutherford, J. (ed.), Identity: Community, culture, difference (London: Lawrence, 1990), pp. 222–237Google Scholar ; Brinkerhoff, Jennifer M., ‘Diaspora Identity and the Potential for Violence: Toward an Identity-Mobilization Framework’, Identity: An International Journal of Theory and Research, 8 (2008), pp. 67–88CrossRefGoogle Scholar .

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3 Etzioni, Amitai, ‘The Good Society’, Seattle Journal of Social Justice, 1 (2002), pp. 83–96, 89Google Scholar .

4 Etzioni, ‘The Good Society’, p. 84.

5 Ibid.

6 There is a vast and important literature on immigrant integration. It is beyond the scope of this article to review the whole of it. For a broader discussion of how it applies to digital diasporas, see Brinkerhoff, Jennifer M., Digital Diasporas: Identity and Transnational Engagement (Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 2009)CrossRefGoogle Scholar .

7 For the case of the Hindu diaspora, see, for example, Lal, Vinay, ‘The Politics of History on the Internet: Cyber-diasporic Hinduism and the North American Hindu diaspora’, Diaspora: A Journal of Transnational Studies, 8 (1999), pp. 137–172CrossRefGoogle Scholar . This phenomenon has also been observed among some members of the Egyptian Copt diaspora, see Brinkerhoff, Jennifer M., Digital Diasporas: Identity and Transnational Engagement (Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 2009)CrossRefGoogle Scholar .

8 Hermans, Hubert and Kemper, Harry, ‘Moving Cultures: The Perilous Problems of Cultural Dichotomies in a Globalizing Society’, American Psychologist, 53 (1998), pp. 1111–1120CrossRefGoogle Scholar ; Lavie, Smadar and Swedenburg, Ted (eds), Displacement, diaspora, and geographies of identity (Durham and London: Duke University Press, 1996)Google Scholar ; Friedman, Jonathan, Cultural Identity and Global Process (London and Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 1994)Google Scholar .

9 Nelson-Jones, ‘Diverse Goals for Multicultural Counselling and Therapy’.

10 Gittel, Ross and Vidal, Avis, Community Organizing: Building Social Capital as a Development Strategy (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 1998)Google Scholar .

11 Falk, Richard A., Human Rights and State Sovereignty (New York: Homes & Meier Publishers, 1981)Google Scholar ; Jacobsen, Michael and Lawson, Stephanie, ‘Between Globalization and Localization: A Case Study of Human Rights versus State Sovereignty’, Global Governance, 5 (1999), pp. 203–220Google Scholar .

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13 Barnett and Duvall, ‘Power in Global Governance’, p. 4.

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18 See Lavie, and Swedenburg, , Displacement, diaspora, and geographies of identityCrossRefGoogle Scholar ; see also, Friedman, , Cultural Identity and Global ProcessGoogle Scholar .

19 Shain, Yossi, Marketing the American Creed Abroad: Diasporas in the US and Their Homelands (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999)Google Scholar ; Shain, Yossi, ‘Multicultural Foreign Policy’, Foreign Policy, 100 (1995), pp. 69–88CrossRefGoogle Scholar .

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21 Spinner, Jeff, The Boundaries of Citizenship (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1994)Google Scholar ; quoted in Shain, , Marketing the American Creed Abroad, p. 26Google Scholar .

22 Shain, , Marketing the American Creed Abroad, p. 26Google Scholar .

23 Ibid.

24 Raz, Joseph, ‘Multiculturalism: A Liberal Perspective’, Dissent, 41 (1994), pp. 67–79Google Scholar .

25 See Brainard, Lori A. and Brinkerhoff, Jennifer M., ‘Lost in Cyberspace: Shedding Light on the Dark Matter of Grassroots Organizations’, Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly, 33 (2004), pp. 32S–53SCrossRefGoogle Scholar ; Brinkerhoff, Jennifer M., ‘Digital Diasporas and International Development: Afghan-Americans and the Reconstruction of Afghanistan’, Public Administration and Development, 24 (2004), pp. 397–413CrossRefGoogle Scholar ; Brinkerhoff, Jennifer M., ‘Digital Diasporas and Conflict Prevention: The Case of Somalinet.com’, Review of International Studies, 32 (2006), pp. 25–47CrossRefGoogle Scholar .

26 CGOs are completely virtual organisations, existing only online and co-created by members, Brainard and Brinkerhoff, ‘Lost in Cyberspace’.

27 Bhatia, Sunil and Ram, Anjali, ‘Locating the Dialogical Self in the Age of Transnational Migrations, Border Crossings and Diasporas’, Culture & Psychology, 7 (2001), pp. 297–309CrossRefGoogle Scholar .

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35 The Alevi are a religious subgroup, found primarily in Turkey (with pockets in Albania and Bulgaria). Alevism is related to Shia Islam and also encompasses elements of pre-Islamic religions of Anatolia and ancient Turkic Shamanism.

36 Sökefeld, Martin, ‘Alevism Online: Re-imagining a Community in Virtual Space’, Diaspora: A Journal of Transnational Studies, 11 (2002), pp. 85–123, 105CrossRefGoogle Scholar . Emphasis in original.

37 Lal, ‘The Politics of History on the Internet’.

38 Barnett and Duvall, ‘Power in Global Governance’, p. 3.

39 Ibid., p. 10.

40 Uphoff, Norman, ‘Analytical Issues in Measuring Empowerment at the Community and Local Levels’, in Narayan, Deepa (ed.), Measuring Empowerment: Cross-disciplinary Perspectives (Washington, DC: The World Bank, 2005), pp. 219–246Google Scholar .

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50 Diener, Ed and Biswas-Diener, Robert, ‘Psychological Empowerment and Subjective Well-Being’, in Narayan, Deepa (ed.), Measuring Empowerment: Cross-Disciplinary Perspectives (Washington, DC: The World Bank, 2005), pp. 125–140, 125Google Scholar .

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55 Ibid., p. 113.

56 Ibid.

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58 Baogang, He and Sautman, Barry, ‘The Politics of the Dalai Lama's New Initiative for Autonomy’, Pacific Affairs, 78 (2005/2006), pp. 601–629CrossRefGoogle Scholar .

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60 Baogang and Sautman, ‘The Politics of the Dalai Lama's New Initiative for Autonomy’.

61 See Zupp, Adrian, ‘Why won't the Dalai Lama pick a fight?’, The Humanist, 64 (2004), p. 5Google Scholar .

62 Unless otherwise specified, information on TibetBoard derives from my personal interview with the founder, Dorjee Nudup, 12 October 2003. Discussion threads were observed and analysed from May–July, 2003. Two hundred and forty-one threads were selected, with an average of approximately seven replies. I selected discussion threads based on the topic's relevance to the research questions, and randomly selected additional threads in order to partially counter bias selection and to sample the general climate of the digital diaspora. I analysed webpages and their interactive components along two dimensions: the nature of the benefit gained from the member's participation (purposive, material, solidary, and cultural identity) and the type of communication involved (conventional, interpersonal, communal, and announcements). These categories are not mutually exclusive. Quotes from the discussion forums and web pages include the original stylised language, as well as errors in punctuation and spelling.

63 Barnett and Duvall, ‘Power in Global Governance’, p. 3.

64 Etzioni, The New Golden Rule.

65 Barnett and Duvall, ‘Power in Global Governance’, p. 16.

66 Lukes, Power.

67 These benefits are increasingly recognised resulting in intentional efforts to produce CGOs for these purposes. See Srinivasan, Ramesh and Shilton, Katie, ‘The South Asian Web: An Emerging Community Information System in the South Asian Diaspora’, Proceedings of the Ninth Conference on Participatory Design: Expanding boundaries in design, Vol. 1 (Trento, Italy: Association for Computing Machinery, 2006), pp. 125–133CrossRefGoogle Scholar .

68 Sökefeld, ‘Alevism Online’, p. 109.

69 It should be noted that diaspora CGOs are also created for explicit political mobilisation purposes, see Kanak, Kilic, ‘Ethnic Media and Politics: The Case of the Use of the Internet by Uyghur Diaspora’, First Monday, 10 (2005)Google Scholar , available at: {http://firstmonday.org/issues/issue10_7/kanat/index.html}.

70 McCormick, Glenn M., ‘Stateless Nations: ‘I pledge Allegiance to… ?’, in Mazarr, Michael J. (ed.), Information Technology and World Politics (New York: Palgrave MacMillan, 2002), pp. 11–23, 12CrossRefGoogle Scholar .

71 Brinkerhoff, ‘Diaspora Identity and the Potential for Violence’.