Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-ndw9j Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-12T21:55:44.474Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Experiments in international administration: The forgotten functionalism of James Arthur Salter

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  23 April 2015

LEONIE HOLTHAUS  and
JENS STEFFEK
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

In this article, we reintroduce the political thought of James Arthur Salter (1881–1975), a British diplomat, politician, and university professor, who made a seminal contribution to the emergence of International Relations theory in the interwar years. His academic writings were informed by his professional engagement with the Allied Maritime Transport Council (AMTC) during the First World War and the technical branches of the League of Nations. Salter promoted a distinctly transgovernmental form of expert cooperation in international advisory bodies connected to national ministries. His vision of a depoliticised transnational expertocracy inspired various IR functionalists, not least David Mitrany. Salter suggested such forms of governance also for British national politics, drawing what we call here an ‘international analogy’. His work illustrates very well how the emergence of IR theory was connected to broader trends in political theory, in particular in efforts at adapting democracy to the increasing complexities of industrial modernity.

Type
Articles
Information
Review of International Studies , Volume 42 , Issue 1 , January 2016 , pp. 114 - 135
Copyright
© 2015 British International Studies Association 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Footnotes

*

The authors wish to thank the editors and anonymous reviewers for their helpful comments on earlier versions of this article. Financial support by the DFG Cluster of Excellence ‘Formation of Normative Orders’ is gratefully acknowledged.

References

1 Traditions of thought are defined as common sets of ideas that are shared by several individuals for a clearly identifiable timeframe. Functionalism satisfies the criteria of an international tradition since functionalists agreed on particular views of international organisation and pluralist democracy. That functionalism overlaps at times with liberal internationalism does not undermine its quality as an independent tradition. See Bevir, Mark, ‘On tradition’, Humanitas, 8:2 (2000), pp. 28–53Google Scholar; Hall, Ian, Dilemmas of Decline: British Intellectuals and World Politics, 1945–1975 (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2012)Google Scholar, ch. 2.

2 Carr, Edward H., The Twenty Years’ Crisis, 1919–1939: An Introduction to the Study of International Relations (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2001)Google Scholar.

3 For critical accounts of the term idealism, see Ashworth, Lucian M., ‘Where are the idealists in interwar International Relations?’, Review of International Studies, 32:2 (2006), pp. 291–308CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Wilson, Peter, ‘The myth of the “First Great Debate”’, Review of International Studies, 24:5 (1998), pp. 1–15CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Wilson, Peter, ‘Where are we now in the debate about the first great debate?’, in Brian Schmidt (ed.), International Relations and the First Great Debate: New International Relations (London: Routledge, 2012), pp. 133–151Google Scholar.

4 Wilson, Peter, Introduction: The Twenty Years’ Crisis and the Category of ‘Idealism’ in International Relations (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1995), p. 15Google Scholar.

5 Edwin Gay, ‘The future of nationalism’, Record of Royal Institute of International Affairs, RIIA/8/209 (London: Chatham House, 1932), p. 27. Address given by Edwin Gay, Salter in Chair at the Study Group on Nationalism.

6 Salter, Arthur, Memoirs of a Public Servant (London: Faber and Faber, 1961), p. 243Google Scholar. He often did not use his full name in publishing and preferred ‘Arthur Salter’.

7 Rickett, Denis, ‘Salter, (James) Arthur, Baron Salter (1881–1975)’, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004)Google Scholar, online edition (October 2009), available at: {http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/31651} accessed 25 Nov 2013.

8 Sylvest, Casper, British Liberal Internationalism, 1880–1930: Making Progress? (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2009)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

9 Morefield, Jeanne, Covenants Without Swords (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2005)Google Scholar.

10 Trentmann, Frank, ‘After the nation state: Citizenship, empire and global coordination in the new internationalism, 1914–1930’, in Kevin Grant, Philippa Levine, and Frank Trendmann (eds), Beyond Sovereignty. Britain, Empire and Transnationalism, c. 1880–1950 (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007), pp. 34–53Google Scholar (p. 37).

11 Carr, Twenty Years’ Crisis.

12 Salter, Arthur, ‘The challenge to democracy’, in Ernest Simon (ed.), Constructive Democracy (London: George Allan & Unwin, 1938), pp. 199–214Google Scholar (p. 202). Mitrany also endorsed pragmatism, but in both a philosophical and practical sense. See Mitrany, David, The Progress of International Government (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1933), p. 139Google Scholar; David Mitrany, ‘The pragmatic forties or the “principle of practicalism”’, Record of Royal Institute of International Affairs, 988 (London: Chatham House, undated).

13 Salter, Arthur, Slave of the Lamp (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1967)Google Scholar.

14 George D. H. Cole, ‘The Civil Service as a profession’, The New Statesman (1923), pp. 623–4.

15 Salter, , Memoirs, p. 252Google Scholar.

16 Salter, , Slave of the Lamp, p. 280Google Scholar.

17 Ibid.

18 Ibid., p. 281.

19 Zaidi, Waqar, ‘Liberal internationalist approaches to science and technology in interwar Britain and the United States’, in Daniel Laqua (ed.), Internationalism Reconfigured: Transnational Ideas and Movements Between the World Wars (London and New York: I. B. Tauris, 2011), pp. 17–43Google Scholar, pp. 33–8. For his enthusiasm about the international accumulation of knowledge, see Arthur Salter, ‘A note by Sir Arthur Salter, K. C. B.’, in League of Nations (ed.), World Prosperity and Peace: Being the Report of a Conference held by the League of Nations Union at the Guildhall, E.C.2, December 13th–15th, 1927, on the work of the International Economic Conference, with an introduction by F. C. Goodenough (London: P. S. King & Son, 1928), pp. 179–80.

20 Salter, Arthur, The Framework of an Ordered Society (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1933)Google Scholar, p. 2.

21 Schmidt, Brian, ‘On the history and historiography of International Relations’, in Walter Carlsnaes, Thomas Risse and Beth A. Simmons (eds), Handbook of International Relations (London: Sage Publications, 2007), pp. 3–22Google Scholar (p. 14).

22 Salter, James A., ‘Economic conflicts as the causes of war’, in Valentine Chirol, Yusuke Tsurumi, and James A. Salter (eds), The Reawakening of the Orient and Other Addresses (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press), pp. 143–160Google Scholar.

23 Arthur Salter, ‘Introduction’, in Quincy Wright (ed.), War and the Private Investor: A Study in the Relations of International Politics and International Private Investment by Eugene Staley (New York: Howard Fertig, 1967 [orig. pub. 1935]), pp. ix–xiii, p. xiii.

24 Clavin, Patricia, Securing the World Economy: The Reinvention of the League of Nations 1920–1946 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013), pp. 12–13CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

25 Salter, ‘Introduction’, p. xi.

26 For the documentary record of council activities in 1917–18 see AMTC, Allied Maritime Transport Council 1918 (London, 1918).

27 Salter, , Slave of the Lamp, p. 59Google Scholar.

28 Decorzant, Yann, La Société des Nations et la naissance d’une conception de la regulation économique internationale (Brussels: P. I. E. Peter Lang, 2011), pp. 133–135Google Scholar.

29 Salter, , Memoirs, p. 106Google Scholar.

30 Monnet, Jean, Mémoires (Paris: Fayard, 1976), pp. 71–95Google Scholar; Salter, , Memoirs, pp. 176–177Google Scholar.

31 AMTC, Allied Maritime Transport Council 1918, pp. 10–1.

32 On these conflicts see Soutou, Georges-Henri, L’or et le sang: Les buts de guerre économiques de la Première Guerre mondiale (Paris: Fayard, 1989), pp. 512–517Google Scholar.

33 Decorzant, , Société des Nations, p. 136Google Scholar.

34 Salter, James A., Allied Shipping Control: An Experiment in International Administration (Oxford: The Clarendon Press, 1921)Google Scholar.

35 Ibid., p. 246.

36 Greaves, Harold R. G., The League Committees and World Order: A Study of the Permanent Expert Committees of the League of Nations as an Instrument of International Government (London: Oxford University Press, 1931)Google Scholar; Laski, Harold J., A Grammar of Politics (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1937), pp. 616–618Google Scholar; Mitrany, David, ‘Political consequences of economic planning’, in Findlay Mackenzie (ed.), Planned Society: Yesterday, Today, Tomorrow. A Symposium by Thirty-Five Economists, Sociologists, and Statesmen (New York: Prentice-Hall, 1937), pp. 641–662Google Scholar (p. 650); Bailey, S. H., ‘Devolution in the conduct of International Relations’, Economica, 30 (1930), pp. 259–274CrossRefGoogle Scholar (p. 267). Cecil Burns also suggested international ‘executive’ planning of, for example, finance and food along the lines of the Allied wartime cooperation but prior to the publication of Salter’s book. See Burns, Cecil D., Political Ideals: An Essay (Oxford: Humphrey Milford, 1919), pp. 318–319Google Scholar.

37 Salter, , Allied Shipping Control, p. 253Google Scholar.

38 Greaves, League Committees; Laski, , Grammar of Politics, pp. 618–619Google Scholar.

39 Salter, , Allied Shipping Control, p. 255Google Scholar.

40 Salter, Arthur, ‘The technique of open diplomacy’, The Political Quarterly, 3:1 (1932), pp. 58–70Google Scholar.

41 Decorzant, Yann, ‘Internationalism in the economic and financial organisation of the League of Nations’, in Daniel Laqua (ed.), Internationalism Reconfigured. Transnational Ideas and Movements Between the World Wars (London and New York: I. B. Tauris, 2011), pp. 116–134Google Scholar (p. 117).

42 Salter, Arthur, The United States of Europe, and Other Papers (London: Allen & Unwin, 1933), pp. 13–31Google Scholar.

43 Boudreau, Frank G., ‘International Civil Service – the secretariat of the League of Nations’, in Harriet E. Davis (ed.), Pioneers in World Order: An American Appraisal of the League of Nations (New York: Columbia University Press, 1945), pp. 76–86Google Scholar (p. 78).

44 Salter, , United States of Europe, p. 26Google Scholar.

45 Ranshofen-Wertheimer, Egon F., The International Secretariat: A Great Experiment in International Administration (Washington, DC: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 1945), p. 79Google Scholar.

46 Decorzant, , ‘Internationalism’, p. 125Google Scholar.

47 Dubin, Martin D., ‘Transgovernmental processes in the League of Nations’, International Organization, 37:3 (1983), pp. 469–493CrossRefGoogle Scholar (p. 483); Greaves, , League Committees, p. 475Google Scholar; Clavin, Patricia and Wessel, Jens-W., ‘Transnationalism and the League of Nations: Understanding the work of its economic and financial organisation’, Contemporary European History, 14:4 (2005), pp. 465–492CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

48 Salter, Arthur, Currencies After the War: A Survey of Conditions in Various Countries. Compiled under the Auspices of the International Secreteriat of the League of Nations (London: Harisson and Sons, 1920)Google Scholar.

49 Phelan, Edward J., ‘The new international Civil Service’, Foreign Affairs, 11:2 (1933), pp. 307–314CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

50 Clavin, and Wessel, , ‘Transnationalism’, p. 475Google Scholar.

51 Salter, Arthur, ‘The reconstruction of Austria’, Foreign Affairs, 2:4 (1924), pp. 630–643CrossRefGoogle Scholar (p. 630); Salter, Arthur, ‘The reconstruction of Hungary’, Foreign Affairs, 5:1 (1926), pp. 91–102CrossRefGoogle Scholar (p. 91).

52 Beyersdorf, Frank, ‘“Credit or chaos”? The Austrian stabilisation programme of 1923 and the League of Nations’, in Daniel Laqua (ed.), Internationalism Reconfigured: Transnational Ideas and Movements Between the World Wars (London and New York: I. B. Tauris, 2011), pp. 135–157Google Scholar (p. 135).

53 Salter, Arthur, Development in Under-Developed Countries (London: Chatham House, 1956), p. 6Google Scholar.

54 Salter, , Slave of the Lamp, p. 72Google Scholar.

55 Salter, , ‘Reconstruction of Austria’, p. 630Google Scholar; Beyersdorf, , ‘Credit or chaos’, p. 148Google Scholar.

56 Clavin, Patricia, ‘The Austrian hunger crisis and the genesis of international organization after the First World War’, International Affairs, 90:2 (2014), pp. 265–278CrossRefGoogle Scholar (p. 267).

57 Rietzler, Katharina, ‘Experts for peace: structures and motives of philantropic internationalism in the interwar period’, in Daniel Laqua (ed.), Internationalism Reconfigured: Transnational Ideas and Movements Between the World Wars (London and New York: I. B. Tauris, 2011), pp. 45–66Google Scholar (p. 50).

58 Mitrany, David, The Effect of the War in Southeastern Europe (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1936), p. 263Google Scholar.

59 Rietzler, , ‘Experts for peace’, p. 49Google Scholar.

60 Zimmern, Alfred, ‘Democracy and the expert’, The Political Quarterly, 1:1 (1930), pp. 7–25CrossRefGoogle Scholar (p. 7). Mary Parker Follett contended that the experts promoting the League often relied on demagogic methods in the face of an uneducated public. Though her thought is sometimes compared to Mitrany’s functionalism, it should be noted that Follett was rather more critical toward increasing involvement of experts. See Follett, Mary Parker, Creative Experience (New York: Longmans, Green & Co., 1930), p. 22CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

61 Laski, Harold J., The Foundations of Sovereignty and Other Essays (New York: Harcourt, Brace and Company, 1921), p. 38Google Scholar.

62 Cole, George D. H., Social Theory (London: Methuen, 1920)Google Scholar; Webb, Sidney and Webb, Beatrice, A Constitution for the Socialist Commenwealth of Great Britain (London: Green and Co, 1920)Google Scholar.

63 Laski, Harold J., The Limitations of the Expert (London: The Fabian Society, 1931), p. 13Google Scholar.

64 Zimmern, , ‘Democracy and the expert’, p. 15Google Scholar.

65 Greaves, , League Committees, pp.12–16Google Scholar.

66 Mannheim, Karl, Rational and Irrational Elements in Contemporary Society (London: Oxford University Press, 1934)Google Scholar; Mannheim, Karl, Mensch und Gesellschaft im Zeitalter des Umbaus (Leiden: A. W. Sijthoff’s Uitgeversmaatschappij N.V., 1935)Google Scholar.

67 Zaidi, , ‘Liberal internationalist approaches’, p. 33Google Scholar.

68 Salter, Arthur, Modern Mechanization and Its Effects on the Structure of Society: Being the Second Massey Lecture Delivered before McGill University on 18 April 1933 (London: Humphrey Milford, 1933), p. 7Google Scholar.

69 Salter, James A., ‘World government’, in Mary Adams (ed.), The Modern State (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1933), pp. 253–316Google Scholar (p. 253).

70 Salter, Arthur, Note at the Second Annual Dinner (London: Chatham House Archive, 1931)Google Scholar.

71 Salter, Arthur, A Scheme for an Economic Advisory Organisation in India (Delhi: Manager Government of India Press, 1931)Google Scholar.

72 Salter, Arthur, ‘Preface’, in Ronald V. Vernon and Nicholas Mansbergh (eds), Advisory Bodies: A Study of Their Uses in Relation to Central Government 1919–1939 (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1940)Google Scholar, pp. 7–9 (p. 7).

73 Salter, , Memoirs, p. 230Google Scholar; Howson, Susan and Winch, Donald, The Economic Advisory Council 1930–1939: A Study in Economic Advice during Depression and Recovery (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1977)CrossRefGoogle Scholar, p. 107.

74 Salter, , ‘Challenge to democracy’, p. 207Google Scholar.

75 Salter, Arthur, ‘Foreword’, in Alderton Pink (ed.), Moral Foundations of Citizenship (London: University of London Press, 1952), pp. 5–7Google Scholar.

76 Salter, , Scheme for an Economic Advisory Organisation, p. 2Google Scholar.

77 Salter, Arthur, China and the Depression: Impressions of a Three Months Visit (Peking: The National Economic Council, 1934)Google Scholar, p. 85.

78 Salter, Arthur, Personality in Politics: Studies of Contemporary Statesmen (London: Faber and Faber, 1947)Google Scholar, p. 238; Salter, ‘Preface’.

79 Cole, Social Theory.

80 Holthaus, Leonie, ‘G. D. H. Cole’s international thought: The dilemmas of justifying socialism in the twentieth century’, The International History Review, 36:5 (2014), pp. 858–875CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

81 Cole, George D. H., Principles of Economic Planning (London: Macmillan, 1935)Google Scholar.

82 Salter, Arthur, World Trade and Its Future (London: Oxford University Press, 1936)CrossRefGoogle Scholar, p. 91; Salter, Arthur, ‘The Future of economic nationalism’, Foreign Affairs, 11:1 (1932)CrossRefGoogle Scholar, pp. 8–20 (p. 15).

83 Clavin, , Securing the World Economy, p. 49Google Scholar.

84 Salter, ‘Foreword’, p. ix.

85 Salter, , World Trade, p. 100Google Scholar.

86 Authors, Various, The Next Five Year: An Essay in Political Agreement (London: Macmillan, 1935)Google Scholar. On liberal internationalism and economic planning see also Or Rosenboim, ‘Barbara Wootton, Friedrich Hayek and the debate on democratic federalism in the 1940s’, The International History Review, 36:05 (2014), pp. 894–918; Spieker, Jörg, ‘Friedrich Hayek and the reinvention of liberal internationalism’, The International History Review, 36:05 (2014), pp. 919–942CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Schulz-Forberg, Hagen, ‘Die Welt oder wie sie sein sollte – Versuche transnationaler Normenbildung für eine globale Wirtschaftsordnung in den 1930er Jahren’, in Jens Steffek and Leonie Holthaus (eds), Jenseits der Anarchie: Weltordnungsentwürfe im frühen 20. Jahrhundert (Frankfurt am Main: Campus, 2014)Google Scholar, pp. 174-202.

87 Pemberton, Jo-Anne, Gobal Metaphors: Modernity and the Quest for One World (London and Sterlington, VA: Pluto Press, 2001), p. 93Google Scholar.

88 Haas, Peter M., ‘Introduction: Epistemic communities and international policy coordination’, International Organization, 46:1 (1992), pp. 1–35Google Scholar (p. 3).

89 Ibid., p. 2.

90 Salter, , Memoirs, p. 201Google Scholar.

91 Salter, Arthur, Recovery: The Second Effort (London: G. Bell and Sons, 1933), p. 79Google Scholar; Salter, Arthur, ‘The conferences of this year: Genevea-Lausanne-Ottawa-London’, The Political Quarterly, 3:4 (1932), pp. 467–488Google Scholar (p. 282).

92 Arthur Salter, ‘Discussion at the third meeting of the Chatham House Study Group called to consider the principle questions affecting the future of the League of Nations and the possible revision of its covenant’, Mitrany Papers, Box 54 (London: LSE Archive, 1936).

93 Salter, Arthur, ‘The economic organization of peace’, Foreign Affairs, 9:1 (1930), pp. 42–53CrossRefGoogle Scholar (p. 42). Salter also hoped that international experts mandated by the League could play a role in the peaceful conflict resolution, as was attempted with the Lytton Commission, but then became disillusioned. See Arthur Salter, ‘The Far Eastern crisis by Henry L. Stimson’, Book Review, Pacific Affairs, 10:1 (1937), pp. 84–5; Salter, Arthur, Security: Can We Retrieve It? (London: Macmillan, 1939), p. 130Google Scholar.

94 Arthur Salter, ‘The colonial question: Raw materials and markets’, Record of Royal Institute of International Affairs, RIIA/8/415 (London: Chatham House, 1936).

95 Aster, Sidney, ‘Introduction: Appeasement and All Souls College’ and ‘Conclusion: “Between resistance and retreat”’, in Sidney Aster (ed.), Appeasement and All Souls: A Portait with Documents, 1937–1939 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004), pp. 1–19Google Scholar, pp. 228–38.

96 For international public intellectuals see Navari, Cornelia, Public Intellectuals and International Affairs: Essays on Public Thinkers and Political Projects (Dordrecht: Republic of Letters Publishing, 2013)Google Scholar.

97 Salter, , Memoirs, p. 259Google Scholar; Salter, Arthur, The Dual Policy (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1939)Google Scholar.

98 In his opposition to appeasement and in his security studies, he repeated a need to break down the distinction between executive and advisory bodies and to reduce the powers of parliament to effectively organise defence. Salter, Security; Salter, Dual Policy; Salter, Memoirs, p. 257; on his views on the UN see Salter, Arthur, Dumbarton Oaks Conference (London: Chatham House, 1944)Google Scholar; Arthur Salter, , The United Nations. Reform, Replace, or Supplement? (London: David Davies Memorial Institute of International Studies, 1957)Google Scholar. Salter shares views with the realist John H. Herz since he equally, after opposing world government as a naïve phantasy, came to endorse international federalism in view of the H-bomb. For Herz see Sylvest, Casper, ‘Technology and global politics: The modern experiences of Bertrand Russell and John H. Herz’, The International History Review, 35:1 (2012), pp. 121–142Google Scholar.

99 Boudreau, , ‘International Civil Service’, p. 85Google Scholar.

100 Orr, Boyd and George D. H. Cole, Welfare and Peace (London: National Peace Council, 1945)Google Scholar.

101 Jessup, Philip C., ‘UNRRA, sample of world Organization’, Foreign Affairs, 22:3 (1944), pp. 362–373CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Woolf, Leonard (ed.), When the Hostilities Cease: Papers on Relief and Reconstruction Prepared for the Fabian Society (London: Victor Gollancz, 1943)Google Scholar; Navari, Cornelia, ‘Functionalism versus federalism: Alternative visions of European unity’, in Philomena Murray and Paul Rich (eds), Visions of European Unity (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1996), pp. 63–93Google Scholar (p. 68).

102 Rickett, ‘Salter’.

103 Salter, Arthur, ‘Conference on international administration: Concluding remarks by the Chairman’, Public Administration, 23:1 (1945), pp. 1–2CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Mitrany, David, ‘Problems of international administration’, Public Administration, 23:1 (1945), pp. 2–12CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

104 Woolf, Leonard, International Government (London: Allen & Unwin, 1916)Google Scholar; Garvin, James L., The Economic Foundations of Peace or World-partnership as the Truer Basis of the League of Nations (London: Macmillan, 1919)Google Scholar.

105 For a Fabian tribute to Salter see, for example, William Arnold-Forster, ‘International controls’, in Leonard Woolf (ed.), When the Hostilities Cease, pp. 43–60 (p. 59).

106 For a highly interesting comparison of Carr and Woolf see Wilson, Peter, The International Theory of Leonard Woolf (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003), pp. 201–204CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

107 Long, David, ‘Conclusion: Inter-war idealism, liberal internationalism, and contemporary international theory’, in David Long and Peter Wilson (eds), Thinkers of the Twenty Years’ Crisis: Inter-War Idealism Reassessed (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1995), pp. 302–328Google Scholar (p. 303); Steffek, Jens and Holthaus, Leonie, ‘Einleitung: Der vergessene “Idealismus” in der Disziplin der Internationalen Beziehungen’, in Jens Steffek and Leonie Holthaus (eds), Jenseits der Anarchie: Weltordnungsentwürfe im frühen 20. Jahrhundert (Frankfurt am Main: Campus, 2014), pp. 11–24Google Scholar (p. 14).

108 For Carr’s functionalism and explicit references to Salter see Carr, Edward H., The Future of Nations: Independence or Interdependence? (London: Kegan Paul, 1941), p. 47Google Scholar; Carr, Edward H., Conditions of Peace (New York: Macmillan, 1947), p. 248Google Scholar.

109 Reinhold Niebuhr, Moral Man and Immoral Society: A Study in Ethics and Politics (Louisville, KT: John Knox Press, 2001 [orig. pub. 1932]), p. xxix; Claude, Ines L., Swords into Plowshares: The Problems and Progress of International Organization (London: University of London Press, 1964), p. 379Google Scholar.

110 Mitrany, David, Greater Romania: A Study in National Ideals (London and Toronto: Hodder & Stroughton, 1917)Google Scholar; Mitrany, David, ‘Italiens Balkanpolitik’, Europäische Gespräche: Hamburger Monatshefte für Auswärtige Politik, 6 (1927), pp. 329–341Google Scholar; Mitrany, David, The Problem of International Sanctions (London: Milford, 1925)Google Scholar.

111 For Mitrany’s debt to Salter see Mitrany, ‘Political consequences’; and Mitrany, David, The Functional Theory of Politics (London: LSE, 1975), p. 17Google Scholar. Mitrany also studied wartime developments when he was working for the Carnegie Endowment in the US (1922). For his own studies on functional wartime cooperation see Mitrany, Effect of the War.

112 Mitrany, , ‘Problems’, p. 2Google Scholar.

113 Fabian International Bureau, ‘Verbatim Report of a Private Weekend Conference Held at Oxford on January 8th and 9th, 1944, Under the Joint Chairmanship of Lord Faringdon, H. N. Brailsford and John Parker, MP’, Mitrany Papers, Box 49 (London: LSE Archive, 1944).

114 Salter, , Personality in Politics, pp. 128–129Google Scholar.

115 Ashworth, Lucian M., ‘A new politics for a global age: David Mitrany’s a working peace system’, in Henrik Bliddal, Casper Sylvest, and Peter Wilson (eds), Classics in International Relations: Essays in Criticism and Appreciation (London: Routledge, 2013), pp. 59–68Google Scholar (p. 64).

116 Mitrany, , ‘Problems’, p. 7Google Scholar.

117 Mitrany, David, ‘A world order and patriotism’, The New Era (April 1945), pp. 68–69Google Scholar.

118 Ashworth, , ‘New politics’, p. 64Google Scholar. Wilson equally noted that Mitrany struggled to clarify the relationship between functional and political bodies. See Wilson, Peter, ‘The new Europe debate in wartime Britain’, in Philomena Murray and Paul Rich (eds), Visions of European Unity (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1996), pp. 39–62Google Scholar (p. 44).

119 Long, David, ‘International functionalism and the politics of forgetting’, International Journal, 48:2 (1993), pp. 355–379CrossRefGoogle Scholar (p. 370).

120 Navari, Cornelia, ‘David Mitrany and international functionalism’, in David Long and Peter Wilson (eds), Thinkers of the Twenty Years’ Crisis: Inter-War Idealism Reassessed (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1995), pp. 214–246Google Scholar (p. 226).

121 Steffek, Jens, ‘The cosmopolitanism of David Mitrany: Equality, devolution, and democracy beyond the state’, International Relations, 29:01 (2015), pp. 23–44CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

122 Holthaus, Leonie, ‘L. T. Hobhouse and the transformation of liberal internationalism’, Review of International Studies, 40:04 (2014), pp. 705–727CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

123 Mitrany, David, Food and Freedom (London: The Batchworth Press, 1945)Google Scholar.

124 Mitrany, David, A Working Peace System (Chicago: Quadrangle Books, 1966), p. 77Google Scholar; Hammarlund, Per A., Liberal Internationalism and the Decline of the State: The Thought of Richard Cobden, David Mitrany, and Kenichi Ohmae (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

125 Salter, Arthur, The Development of Iraq: A Plan of Action (London: Caxton, 1955)Google Scholar; Salter, China and the Depression; Salter, Scheme for an Economic Advisory Organisation.

126 Kuß, Susanne, Der Völkerbund und China (Münster: Lit Verlag, 2005). p. 142Google Scholar.

127 Herz, John H., International Politics in the Atomic Age (New York: Columbia University Press, 1959), p. 326Google Scholar.

128 Boudreau, , ‘International Civil Service’, p. 81Google Scholar. In Mitrany’s functionalism this matters with regard to the claims of small states.

129 Mitrany, ‘World order and patriotism’; Mitrany, , Working Peace System, pp. 77–78Google Scholar.

130 Mitrany, David, ‘International cooperation in action’, International Associations, 11:9 (1959), pp. 644–648Google Scholar; Mitrany, David, ‘The international NGOs: Experiment in representation’, Manchester Guardian (10 April 1954)Google Scholar.