Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-fscjk Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-23T17:33:37.318Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

The Art of Authority: Exhibits, Exhibit-Makers, and the Contest for Scientific Status in the American Museum of Natural History, 1920–1940

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  28 April 2011

Victoria Cain
Victoria Cain*
Affiliation:
New York University
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Argument

In the 1920s and 1930s, the growing importance of habitat dioramas at the American Museum of Natural History forced staff members to reconsider what counted as scientific practice and knowledge. Exhibit-makers pressed for more scientific authority, citing their extensive and direct observations of nature in the field. The museum's curators, concerned about their own eroding status, dismissed this bid for authority, declaring that older traditions of lay observation were no longer legitimate. By the 1940s, changes inside and outside the museum had destroyed any lingering notions that what exhibit-makers garnered from observing raw materials constituted scientific knowledge.

Type
Research Article
Information
Science in Context , Volume 24 , Issue 2: Lay Participation in the History of Scientific Observation , June 2011 , pp. 215 - 238
Copyright
Copyright © Cambridge University Press 2011

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

References

Central Archives of the American Museum of Natural History – AMNHGoogle Scholar
California Academy of Sciences Archives – CASGoogle Scholar
Colorado Museum of Natural History Archives – CMNHGoogle Scholar
Department of Mammalogy Archives at the American Museum of Natural History – DM-AMNHGoogle Scholar
Department of Vertebrate Paleontology at the American Museum of Natural History – DVP-AMNHGoogle Scholar
16 February 1928. “Minutes from Meeting of Division II,” Department of Mammalogy Administrative Papers, Box 2 FF: American Museum of Natural History Departments “Division II,” 1922–1930, AMNH.Google Scholar
27 May 1935. “Minutes from a Special Meeting of the Council of Scientific Staff,” Department of Mammalogy Administrative Papers, Box 1 FF: AMNH: Council of Scientific Staff: Correspondence I 1934–5, AMNH.Google Scholar
5 August 1935. “Minutes from a Meeting of the Council of Scientific Staff.” Department of Mammalogy Administrative Papers, Box 1 FF: AMNH: Council of Scientific Staff: Correspondence I, 1934–5, AMNH.Google Scholar
December 1935. “Summary of Replies to Request for a Statement as to the Outcome if No Increases are Made in the Budget of 1935, in Report on Scientific Plant, Equipment and Personnel,” Department of Mammalogy Administrative Papers, Box 1 of 5, FF AMNH Committees – Budget, AMNH.Google Scholar
5 February 1942. “Minutes of the Forty-Fifth Meeting of the Departmental Committee on the Whitney Wing,” AMNH.Google Scholar
Anthony, Harold E. to Henry Fairfield Osborn. 2 October 1925. FF H.E. Anthony, Folder I, Biographical 1914–1934, DM-AMNH.Google Scholar
Anthony, Harold E. 1934. “Outline of Plans for the Department of Mammals for the Next Few Years.” FF H.E. Anthony XI Administrative, 1919–1935, DM-AMNH.Google Scholar
Anthony, Harold E. to Andrews, Roy Chapman. 16 April 1935. FF H.E. Anthony XI Administrative, 1919–1935, AMNH.Google Scholar
Chapman, Frank. 5 January 1942. “A Plea for the North American Habitat Bird Groups,” Department of Mammalogy Administrative Papers, Box 1 FF: AMNH Council of Scientific Staff Minutes IV, 1941–1942, AMNH.Google Scholar
Clark, James L. 1909. “Diary of the British East Africa Expedition,” AMNH.Google Scholar
Clark, James L. 1926. “Diary of the Morden-Clark Asiatic Expedition,” AMNH.Google Scholar
Clark, James L. 1929. “Radio Talk: Collecting for a Museum Exhibition,” WRNY files, AMNH.Google Scholar
Clark, James L. to Tose, Frank. 8 July 1931. Frank Tose Correspondence, Box 2, FF: Correspondence with AAM, CAS.Google Scholar
Figgins, Jesse D. to Clark, Herbert N.. 20 November 1917. Box 501 Figgins 6, FF 6, CMNH.Google Scholar
Gregory, William K. to Anthony, Harold E.. 24 May 1935. Department of Mammalogy Administrative Papers, Box 1 FF: AMNH: Council of Scientific Staff: Correspondence I 1934–5, AMNH.Google Scholar
Gudger, E. W. to Gregory, William K.. 11 June 1935. William King Gregory Papers, Box 17: FF 1–4, AMNH.Google Scholar
Knight, Charles R. to Osborn, Henry Fairfield. 3 February 1919. Box 51, File 58, DVP-AMNH.Google Scholar
Murphy, Robert Cushman to Mr. Whitney. 31 August 1943. Excerpted in “Minutes of the Fiftieth Meeting of the Committee on the Whitney Wing, Rothschild Collection, Monday, November 29, 1943,” AMNH.Google Scholar
Rockwell, Robert H. to Clark, James L. 26 July 1936. FF Robert Rockwell, DM-AMNH.Google Scholar
Tate, G. H. H. 6 March 1941.“Report on the Functions of the Department of Mammals,” Department of Mammalogy Administrative Papers, Box 2 FF: AMNH CSS Correspondence IV, 1940–1941, AMNH.Google Scholar
Annual Report of the American Museum of Natural History. 1921. New York: American Museum of Natural History.Google Scholar
Andrei, Mary Anne. 2006. “Nature's Mirror: How the Taxidermists of Ward's Natural Science Establishment Reshaped the American Natural History Museum and Founded the Wildlife Conservation Movement.” Minneapolis: University of Minnesota.Google Scholar
Bodrys-Sanders, Penelope. 1991. Carl Akeley: Africa's Collector, Africa's Savior. New York: Paragon House.Google Scholar
Bogart, Michele. 1995. Artists, Advertising and the Borders of Art. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Bogart, Michele. 2002. “Lowbrow/Highbrow: Charles R. Knight, Art Work and the Spectacle of Prehistoric Life.” In American Victorians and Virgin Nature, edited by Jackson Lears, T. J., 39–63. Boston: Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum.Google Scholar
Boas, Franz. 1907. “Some Principles of Museum Administration.” Science 25:921–33.Google Scholar
Cain, Joseph A. 1993. “Common Problems and Cooperative Solutions: Organizational Activity in Evolutionary Studies, 1936–1947.” Isis 84:1–25.Google ScholarPubMed
Cain, Victoria. 2006. “Nature Under Glass: Popular Science, Professional Illusion and the Transformation of American Natural History Museums, 1870–1940.” Ph.D. diss., Columbia University.Google Scholar
Cain, Victoria. 2010. “‘The Direct Medium of the Vision’: Visual Education, Virtual Witnessing and the Prehistoric Past at the American Museum of Natural History, 1890–1923.” Journal of Visual Culture 10:284–303.Google Scholar
Chapman, Frank M. 1915. “Louis Agassiz Fuertes–Painter of Bird Portraits.” American Museum Journal 15:221–224.Google Scholar
Chapman, Frank M. 1935. Autobiography of a Bird-Lover. New York: D. Appleton-Century.Google Scholar
Chapman, Frank M. 1937. “Fuertes and Audubon: A Comparison of the Work and Personalities of Two of the World's Greatest Bird Artists.” Natural History 205–212.Google Scholar
Clark, Constance. 2008. God – or Gorilla: Images of Evolution in the Jazz Age. Baltimore MD: Johns Hopkins University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clark, James L. 1966. Good Hunting: Fifty Years of Collecting and Preparing Habitat Groups for the American Museum. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press.Google Scholar
Daston, Lorraine and Galison, Peter. 2007. Objectivity. New York: Zone Books.Google Scholar
Davie, Oliver. 1894. Methods in the Art of Taxidermy. Philadelphia: David McKay.Google Scholar
Dickerson, Mary Cynthia. 1914. “Charles R. Knight, Painter and Sculptor: With an Introduction Relative to the Union of Art and Science in the American Museum.” American Museum Journal 14:83–98.Google Scholar
Dill, Homer R. 1915. “Building An Educational Museum as a Function of the University.” In Tenth Annual Meeting of the American Association of Museums, edited by Rea, Paul M., 78–86. San Francisco: Waverly Press.Google Scholar
Dill, Homer R. 1916. “The Correlation of Art and Science in the Museum.” In Proceedings of the Eleventh Annual Meeting of the American Association of Museums, edited by Rea, Paul M., 121–128. Washington DC: Waverly Press.Google Scholar
Griesemer, James R. 1990. “Modeling in the Museum: On the Role of Remnant Models in the Work of Joseph Grinnell.” Biology and Philosophy 5:3–36.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Griffiths, Alison. 2002. Wondrous Difference: Cinema, Anthropology and Turn-of-the-Century Visual Culture. New York: Columbia University Press.Google Scholar
Haraway, Donna. 1989. Primate Visions: Gender, Race and Nature in the World of Modern Science. New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Hellman, Geoffrey. 1968. Bankers, Bones and Beetles: The First Century of the American Museum of Natural History. Garden City: Natural History Press.Google Scholar
Kennedy, John Michael. 1968. “Philanthropy and Science in New York City: The American Museum of Natural History, 1868–1968.” Ph.D. diss., Yale University.Google Scholar
Kohler, Robert E. 2002. Landscapes and Labscapes: Exploring the Lab-Field Border in Biology. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kohler, Robert E. 2006. All Creatures: Naturalists, Collectors and Biodiversity, 1850–1950. Princeton: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Kohlstedt, Sally Gregory. 1979. “From Learned Society to Public Museum: The Boston Society of Natural History.” In The Organization of Knowledge in Modern America, 1860–1920, edited by Oleson, Alexandra and Voss, John, 386–406. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.Google Scholar
Leigh, William R. 1938. Frontiers of Enchantment: An Artist's Adventures in Africa. New York: Simon and Schuster.Google Scholar
Lucas, Frederic A. 1921. “The Story of Museum Groups.” Guide Leaflet Series, American Museum of Natural History 53.Google Scholar
Luce, Don T. and Andrews, Laura M.. 1982. Francis Lee Jaques: Artist-Naturalist. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.Google Scholar
Maienschein, Jane. 1988. “Whitman at Chicago: Establishing a Chicago Style of Biology?” In The American Development of Biology, edited by Rainger, Ronald and Maienschein, Jane, 151–182. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.Google Scholar
Murphy, Robert Cushman. 1937. “Natural History Exhibits and Modern Education.” Scientific Monthly 95:76–81.Google Scholar
Nyhart, Lynn K. 2004. “Science, Art and Authenticity in Natural History Displays.” In Models: The Third Dimension of Science, edited by Chadarevian, Soraya de and Hopwood, Nick, 307–335. Stanford: Stanford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nyhart, Lynn K. 2009. Modern Nature: The Rise of the Biological Perspective in Germany, Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Pauly, Philip. 1988. “Summer Resort and Scientific Discipline: Woods Hole and the Structure of American Biology, 1882–1925.” In The American Development of Biology, edited by edited by Rainger, Ronald and Maienschein, Jane121–150. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.Google Scholar
Peck, Robert M. 1984. “Bringing Birds to Life: the Life and Art of Louis Agassiz Fuertes.” Terra: The Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County 22:6–11.Google Scholar
Rader, Karen and Victoria, Cain. 2008. “From Natural History to Science: Display and the Transformation of American Museums of Science and Natural History.” Museum and Society 6:152–171.Google Scholar
Rainger, Ronald. 1991. An Agenda for Antiquity: Henry Fairfield Osborn and vertebrate paleontology at the American Museum of Natural History, 1890–1935. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press.Google Scholar
Shapin, Steven and Barnes, Barry. 1976. “Head and Hand: Rhetorical Resources in British Pedagogical Writing, 1770–1850.” Oxford Review of Education 2:231–254.Google Scholar
Shufeldt, Robert W. 1892. “Report of the Smithsonian Institution for 1892.” Washington: Smithsonian Institution.Google Scholar
Smith, Pamela H. 2004. The Body of the Artisan: Art and Experience in the Scientific Revolution. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Star, Susan Leigh. 1992. “Craft vs. Commodity, Mess vs. Transcendence: How the Right Tool Became the Wrong One in the Case of Taxidermy and Natural History.” In The Right Tools for the Job: At Work in Twentieth-Century Life Sciences, edited by Clarke, Adele E. and Fujimura, Joan H., 257–286. Princeton: Princeton University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sutton, George Miksch. 1979. To a Young Bird Artist: Letters from Louis Agassiz Fuertes to George Miksch Sutton. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press.Google Scholar
Winsor, Mary P. 1991. Reading the Shape of Nature: Comparative Zoology at the Agassiz Museum. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wissler, Clyde. 1925. “The Museum Exhibition Problem.” Museum Work 7:173–180.Google Scholar
Wissler, Clyde. 1943. “Survey of the American Museum of Natural History: made at the request of the Management Board.” New York: American Museum of Natural History.Google Scholar
Wonders, Karen. 1993. Habitat Dioramas. Stockholm: Almqvist and Wiksell.Google Scholar
Central Archives of the American Museum of Natural History – AMNHGoogle Scholar
California Academy of Sciences Archives – CASGoogle Scholar
Colorado Museum of Natural History Archives – CMNHGoogle Scholar
Department of Mammalogy Archives at the American Museum of Natural History – DM-AMNHGoogle Scholar
Department of Vertebrate Paleontology at the American Museum of Natural History – DVP-AMNHGoogle Scholar
16 February 1928. “Minutes from Meeting of Division II,” Department of Mammalogy Administrative Papers, Box 2 FF: American Museum of Natural History Departments “Division II,” 1922–1930, AMNH.Google Scholar
27 May 1935. “Minutes from a Special Meeting of the Council of Scientific Staff,” Department of Mammalogy Administrative Papers, Box 1 FF: AMNH: Council of Scientific Staff: Correspondence I 1934–5, AMNH.Google Scholar
5 August 1935. “Minutes from a Meeting of the Council of Scientific Staff.” Department of Mammalogy Administrative Papers, Box 1 FF: AMNH: Council of Scientific Staff: Correspondence I, 1934–5, AMNH.Google Scholar
December 1935. “Summary of Replies to Request for a Statement as to the Outcome if No Increases are Made in the Budget of 1935, in Report on Scientific Plant, Equipment and Personnel,” Department of Mammalogy Administrative Papers, Box 1 of 5, FF AMNH Committees – Budget, AMNH.Google Scholar
5 February 1942. “Minutes of the Forty-Fifth Meeting of the Departmental Committee on the Whitney Wing,” AMNH.Google Scholar
Anthony, Harold E. to Henry Fairfield Osborn. 2 October 1925. FF H.E. Anthony, Folder I, Biographical 1914–1934, DM-AMNH.Google Scholar
Anthony, Harold E. 1934. “Outline of Plans for the Department of Mammals for the Next Few Years.” FF H.E. Anthony XI Administrative, 1919–1935, DM-AMNH.Google Scholar
Anthony, Harold E. to Andrews, Roy Chapman. 16 April 1935. FF H.E. Anthony XI Administrative, 1919–1935, AMNH.Google Scholar
Chapman, Frank. 5 January 1942. “A Plea for the North American Habitat Bird Groups,” Department of Mammalogy Administrative Papers, Box 1 FF: AMNH Council of Scientific Staff Minutes IV, 1941–1942, AMNH.Google Scholar
Clark, James L. 1909. “Diary of the British East Africa Expedition,” AMNH.Google Scholar
Clark, James L. 1926. “Diary of the Morden-Clark Asiatic Expedition,” AMNH.Google Scholar
Clark, James L. 1929. “Radio Talk: Collecting for a Museum Exhibition,” WRNY files, AMNH.Google Scholar
Clark, James L. to Tose, Frank. 8 July 1931. Frank Tose Correspondence, Box 2, FF: Correspondence with AAM, CAS.Google Scholar
Figgins, Jesse D. to Clark, Herbert N.. 20 November 1917. Box 501 Figgins 6, FF 6, CMNH.Google Scholar
Gregory, William K. to Anthony, Harold E.. 24 May 1935. Department of Mammalogy Administrative Papers, Box 1 FF: AMNH: Council of Scientific Staff: Correspondence I 1934–5, AMNH.Google Scholar
Gudger, E. W. to Gregory, William K.. 11 June 1935. William King Gregory Papers, Box 17: FF 1–4, AMNH.Google Scholar
Knight, Charles R. to Osborn, Henry Fairfield. 3 February 1919. Box 51, File 58, DVP-AMNH.Google Scholar
Murphy, Robert Cushman to Mr. Whitney. 31 August 1943. Excerpted in “Minutes of the Fiftieth Meeting of the Committee on the Whitney Wing, Rothschild Collection, Monday, November 29, 1943,” AMNH.Google Scholar
Rockwell, Robert H. to Clark, James L. 26 July 1936. FF Robert Rockwell, DM-AMNH.Google Scholar
Tate, G. H. H. 6 March 1941.“Report on the Functions of the Department of Mammals,” Department of Mammalogy Administrative Papers, Box 2 FF: AMNH CSS Correspondence IV, 1940–1941, AMNH.Google Scholar
Annual Report of the American Museum of Natural History. 1921. New York: American Museum of Natural History.Google Scholar
Andrei, Mary Anne. 2006. “Nature's Mirror: How the Taxidermists of Ward's Natural Science Establishment Reshaped the American Natural History Museum and Founded the Wildlife Conservation Movement.” Minneapolis: University of Minnesota.Google Scholar
Bodrys-Sanders, Penelope. 1991. Carl Akeley: Africa's Collector, Africa's Savior. New York: Paragon House.Google Scholar
Bogart, Michele. 1995. Artists, Advertising and the Borders of Art. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Bogart, Michele. 2002. “Lowbrow/Highbrow: Charles R. Knight, Art Work and the Spectacle of Prehistoric Life.” In American Victorians and Virgin Nature, edited by Jackson Lears, T. J., 39–63. Boston: Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum.Google Scholar
Boas, Franz. 1907. “Some Principles of Museum Administration.” Science 25:921–33.Google Scholar
Cain, Joseph A. 1993. “Common Problems and Cooperative Solutions: Organizational Activity in Evolutionary Studies, 1936–1947.” Isis 84:1–25.Google ScholarPubMed
Cain, Victoria. 2006. “Nature Under Glass: Popular Science, Professional Illusion and the Transformation of American Natural History Museums, 1870–1940.” Ph.D. diss., Columbia University.Google Scholar
Cain, Victoria. 2010. “‘The Direct Medium of the Vision’: Visual Education, Virtual Witnessing and the Prehistoric Past at the American Museum of Natural History, 1890–1923.” Journal of Visual Culture 10:284–303.Google Scholar
Chapman, Frank M. 1915. “Louis Agassiz Fuertes–Painter of Bird Portraits.” American Museum Journal 15:221–224.Google Scholar
Chapman, Frank M. 1935. Autobiography of a Bird-Lover. New York: D. Appleton-Century.Google Scholar
Chapman, Frank M. 1937. “Fuertes and Audubon: A Comparison of the Work and Personalities of Two of the World's Greatest Bird Artists.” Natural History 205–212.Google Scholar
Clark, Constance. 2008. God – or Gorilla: Images of Evolution in the Jazz Age. Baltimore MD: Johns Hopkins University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Clark, James L. 1966. Good Hunting: Fifty Years of Collecting and Preparing Habitat Groups for the American Museum. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press.Google Scholar
Daston, Lorraine and Galison, Peter. 2007. Objectivity. New York: Zone Books.Google Scholar
Davie, Oliver. 1894. Methods in the Art of Taxidermy. Philadelphia: David McKay.Google Scholar
Dickerson, Mary Cynthia. 1914. “Charles R. Knight, Painter and Sculptor: With an Introduction Relative to the Union of Art and Science in the American Museum.” American Museum Journal 14:83–98.Google Scholar
Dill, Homer R. 1915. “Building An Educational Museum as a Function of the University.” In Tenth Annual Meeting of the American Association of Museums, edited by Rea, Paul M., 78–86. San Francisco: Waverly Press.Google Scholar
Dill, Homer R. 1916. “The Correlation of Art and Science in the Museum.” In Proceedings of the Eleventh Annual Meeting of the American Association of Museums, edited by Rea, Paul M., 121–128. Washington DC: Waverly Press.Google Scholar
Griesemer, James R. 1990. “Modeling in the Museum: On the Role of Remnant Models in the Work of Joseph Grinnell.” Biology and Philosophy 5:3–36.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Griffiths, Alison. 2002. Wondrous Difference: Cinema, Anthropology and Turn-of-the-Century Visual Culture. New York: Columbia University Press.Google Scholar
Haraway, Donna. 1989. Primate Visions: Gender, Race and Nature in the World of Modern Science. New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Hellman, Geoffrey. 1968. Bankers, Bones and Beetles: The First Century of the American Museum of Natural History. Garden City: Natural History Press.Google Scholar
Kennedy, John Michael. 1968. “Philanthropy and Science in New York City: The American Museum of Natural History, 1868–1968.” Ph.D. diss., Yale University.Google Scholar
Kohler, Robert E. 2002. Landscapes and Labscapes: Exploring the Lab-Field Border in Biology. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kohler, Robert E. 2006. All Creatures: Naturalists, Collectors and Biodiversity, 1850–1950. Princeton: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Kohlstedt, Sally Gregory. 1979. “From Learned Society to Public Museum: The Boston Society of Natural History.” In The Organization of Knowledge in Modern America, 1860–1920, edited by Oleson, Alexandra and Voss, John, 386–406. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.Google Scholar
Leigh, William R. 1938. Frontiers of Enchantment: An Artist's Adventures in Africa. New York: Simon and Schuster.Google Scholar
Lucas, Frederic A. 1921. “The Story of Museum Groups.” Guide Leaflet Series, American Museum of Natural History 53.Google Scholar
Luce, Don T. and Andrews, Laura M.. 1982. Francis Lee Jaques: Artist-Naturalist. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.Google Scholar
Maienschein, Jane. 1988. “Whitman at Chicago: Establishing a Chicago Style of Biology?” In The American Development of Biology, edited by Rainger, Ronald and Maienschein, Jane, 151–182. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.Google Scholar
Murphy, Robert Cushman. 1937. “Natural History Exhibits and Modern Education.” Scientific Monthly 95:76–81.Google Scholar
Nyhart, Lynn K. 2004. “Science, Art and Authenticity in Natural History Displays.” In Models: The Third Dimension of Science, edited by Chadarevian, Soraya de and Hopwood, Nick, 307–335. Stanford: Stanford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nyhart, Lynn K. 2009. Modern Nature: The Rise of the Biological Perspective in Germany, Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Pauly, Philip. 1988. “Summer Resort and Scientific Discipline: Woods Hole and the Structure of American Biology, 1882–1925.” In The American Development of Biology, edited by edited by Rainger, Ronald and Maienschein, Jane121–150. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.Google Scholar
Peck, Robert M. 1984. “Bringing Birds to Life: the Life and Art of Louis Agassiz Fuertes.” Terra: The Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County 22:6–11.Google Scholar
Rader, Karen and Victoria, Cain. 2008. “From Natural History to Science: Display and the Transformation of American Museums of Science and Natural History.” Museum and Society 6:152–171.Google Scholar
Rainger, Ronald. 1991. An Agenda for Antiquity: Henry Fairfield Osborn and vertebrate paleontology at the American Museum of Natural History, 1890–1935. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press.Google Scholar
Shapin, Steven and Barnes, Barry. 1976. “Head and Hand: Rhetorical Resources in British Pedagogical Writing, 1770–1850.” Oxford Review of Education 2:231–254.Google Scholar
Shufeldt, Robert W. 1892. “Report of the Smithsonian Institution for 1892.” Washington: Smithsonian Institution.Google Scholar
Smith, Pamela H. 2004. The Body of the Artisan: Art and Experience in the Scientific Revolution. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar
Star, Susan Leigh. 1992. “Craft vs. Commodity, Mess vs. Transcendence: How the Right Tool Became the Wrong One in the Case of Taxidermy and Natural History.” In The Right Tools for the Job: At Work in Twentieth-Century Life Sciences, edited by Clarke, Adele E. and Fujimura, Joan H., 257–286. Princeton: Princeton University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sutton, George Miksch. 1979. To a Young Bird Artist: Letters from Louis Agassiz Fuertes to George Miksch Sutton. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press.Google Scholar
Winsor, Mary P. 1991. Reading the Shape of Nature: Comparative Zoology at the Agassiz Museum. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wissler, Clyde. 1925. “The Museum Exhibition Problem.” Museum Work 7:173–180.Google Scholar
Wissler, Clyde. 1943. “Survey of the American Museum of Natural History: made at the request of the Management Board.” New York: American Museum of Natural History.Google Scholar
Wonders, Karen. 1993. Habitat Dioramas. Stockholm: Almqvist and Wiksell.Google Scholar