Hostname: page-component-78c5997874-v9fdk Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-19T23:40:50.859Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Accounting for Civilian Casualties: From the Past to the Future

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  11 June 2018

Nicholas P. Jewell ,
Michael Spagat  and
Britta L. Jewell
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Assessment of the extent of civilian casualties during times of conflict presents significant challenges in data collection, quantitative methods, interpretation, and presentation. In this article, we briefly consider the motivation and use of casualty accounting and review historical approaches to these questions with illustrative comments on the US Civil War, World War I, World War II, and other conflicts. We provide an overview of several accounting methodologies including excess mortality, epidemiologic surveys, direct and indirect counts, multiple list estimation, and crowdsourcing. We reflect on the evolution toward modern approaches to casualty assessments, permitted by both a deeper understanding of human rights and by contemporaneous technological advances in data collection techniques. Our goal is to introduce several areas of research that deserve attention from social science historians and statisticians.

Type
Research Article
Information
Social Science History , Volume 42 , Issue 3 , Fall 2018 , pp. 379 - 410
Copyright
© Social Science History Association, 2018 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Airwars (2016) https://airwars.org/ (accessed October 28, 2016).Google Scholar
Alcabes, P. (2009) Dread: How Fear and Fantasy Have Fueled Epidemics from the Black Death to Avian Flu. New York: Public Affairs.Google Scholar
Ancient Greek Battles (2016) “Marathon stone,” www.ancientgreekbattles.net/Pages/49036_MarathonStone.htm (accessed October 24, 2016).Google Scholar
Andreas, P. Greenhill, K. M., eds. (2010) “Introduction: The politics of numbers,” in P. Andreas, and K. M. Greenhill (eds.) Sex, Drugs, and Body Counts: The Politics of Numbers in Global Crime and Conflict. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press: 1–22.Google Scholar
Aronson, J. D. (2013) “The politics of civilian casualty counts,” in T. B. Seybolt, J. Aronson, and B. Fischhoff (eds.) Counting Civilian Casualties: An Introduction to Recording and Estimating Nonmilitary Deaths in Conflict. Oxford: Oxford University Press: 29–50.Google Scholar
Asher, J. (2013) “Using surveys to estimate casualties post-conflict: Developments for the developing world,” in T. B. Seybolt, J. Aronson, and B. Fischhoff (eds.) Counting Civilian Casualties: An Introduction to Recording and Estimating Nonmilitary Deaths in Conflict. Oxford: Oxford University Press: 97–122.Google Scholar
Ball, P., Kobrak, P. Spirer, H. F.(1999) “State violence in Guatemala, 1960–1997: A quantitative reflection.” Washington, DC: American Association for the Advancement of Science, www.aaas.org/sites/default/files/migrate/uploads/Guatemala_en.pdf (accessed October 28, 2016).Google Scholar
Ball, P., Asher, J., Sulmont, D. Manrique, D. (2003) “How many Peruvians have died? An estimate of the total number of victims killed or disappeared in the armed internal conflict between 1980 and 2000.” Report to the Peruvian Truth and Reconciliation Commission. Washington, DC: American Association for the Advancement of Science.Google Scholar
Ball, P., Betts, W., Scheuren, F., Dudukovich, J. Asher, J. (2002) “Killings and refugee flow in Kosovo March–June 1999: A report to the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia.” Washington, DC: American Association for the Advancement of Science.Google Scholar
Barry, J. M. (2004) The Great Influenza: The Epic Story of the Deadliest Plague in History. New York: Viking.Google Scholar
Bell, D. A. (2007) The First Total War: Napoleon’s Europe and the Birth of Modern Warfare. London: Bloomsbury.Google Scholar
Bell, J., Nolle, D., Citrin, R. Scheuren, F.(2008) “Afghan refugee camp surveys in Pakistan, 2002,” in J. Asher, D. Banks, and F. J. Scheuren (eds.) Statistical Methods for Human Rights. New York: Springer.Google Scholar
Bercault, O., Brody, R., Koulouris, M. Schotsman, M. (2013) “La Plaine des Morts. Le Tchad de Hissène Habré 1982–1990: Human rights watch,” www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/reports/chad1013frwebwcover_0.pdf.Google Scholar
Betts, W. S. (2016) “Evidence by the numbers: Using statistical analyses as evidence of international atrocity crimes.” University of San Francisco Law Review 50 (3): 357–400.Google Scholar
Bodart, G. (1908) Militär-historisches Kriegs-Lexikon, 1618–1905. Vienna: C. W. Stern.Google Scholar
Bodart, G. (1916) Losses of Life in Modern Wars. Oxford: Clarendon.Google Scholar
“Book Notes” (1924) Political Science Quarterly 39 (3): 537–548.Google Scholar
Breau, S. Joyce, R. (2011) “Discussion paper: The legal obligation to record civilian casualties of armed conflict.” Oxford Research Group, www.oxfordresearchgroup.org.uk/sites/default/files/1st legal report formatted FINAL.pdf (accessed October 28, 2016).Google Scholar
Brunborg, H., Lyngstad, T. H. Urdal, H. (2003) “Accounting for genocide: How many were killed in Srebrenica?” European Journal of Population 19 (3): 229–248.Google Scholar
B’Tselem (2016) “The Israeli Information Center for Human Rights in the Occupied Territories,” www.btselem.org/statistics (accessed October 27, 2016).Google Scholar
Burkle, F. Jr. Garfield, R. (2013) “Civilian mortality after the 2003 invasion of Iraq.” Lancet 381 (9870): 877–879.Google Scholar
Burnham, G., Lafta, R., Doocy, S. Roberts, L. (2006) “Mortality after the 2003 invasion of Iraq: A cross-sectional cluster sample survey.” Lancet 368 (9545): 1421–1428.Google Scholar
Busey, J. W. Martin, D. G. (2005) Regimental Strengths and Losses at Gettysburg, 4th ed. Hightstown, NJ: Longstreet House.Google Scholar
Cameron, E., Spagat, M. Hicks, M. H. (2009) “Tracking civilian casualties in combat zones using civilian battle damage assessment ratios.” British Army Review 147: 87–93.Google Scholar
Carnegie, A. (1910) “Mr. Carnegie’s letter to the trustees,” Carnegie Endowment, December 14, http://carnegieendowment.org/about/pdfs/CarnegieLetter.pdf (accessed October 26, 2016).Google Scholar
Carnegie Commission on Preventing Deadly Conflict (1997) “Final report: Preventing deadly conflict,” www.carnegie.org/media/filer_public/b2/0e/b20e1080-7830-4f2b-9410-51c14171809b/ccny_report_1997_ccpdc_final.pdf (accessed October 27, 2016).Google Scholar
Carpenter, C. (2010) “An interesting pattern in the Wikileaks data,” Duck of Minerva (blog), November 9, http://duckofminerva.com/tag/collateral-damage (accessed October 28, 2016).Google Scholar
Conibere, R., Asher, J., Cibelli, K., Dudukovich, J., Kaplan, R. Ball, P. (2004) “Statistical appendix to the Report of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Sierra Leone,” Human Rights Data Analysis Group, The Benetech Initiative, https://hrdag.org/publications-year/2004/ (accessed March 15, 2016).Google Scholar
Cummings, B. (2010) The Korean War: A History, Modern Library Edition New York: Random House.Google Scholar
DaPonte, B. O. (2008) “Why estimate direct and indirect casualties from war?.” in J. Asher, D. Banks, and F. J. Scheuren (eds.) Statistical Methods for Human Rights. New York: Springer.Google Scholar
Davenport, C. (2009) “Casualty counts and contentious politics.” Paper presented at conference on Casualty Recording and Estimation in Times of Conflict, Carnegie Mellon University and University of Pittsburgh, October 23–24.Google Scholar
Dockrill, M. Paskins, B. (1979) Ethics of War. London: Gerald Duckworth & Co. Ltd.Google Scholar
Dumas, D. G. Vedel-Petersen, K. O. (1923) Losses of Life Caused by War, H. Westergaard (ed.) Oxford: Clarendon Press.Google Scholar
Eck, K. (2005) “The myth of civilian war deaths.” in Human Security Centre. (ed.) The Human Security Report 2005: War and Peace in the 21st Century. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Eckhardt, W. (1989) “Civilian deaths in wartime.” Bulletin of Peace Proposals 20 (1): 89–98.Google Scholar
Elliot, M. (2011) “The institutional expansion of human rights, 1863–2003: A comprehensive dataset of international instruments.” Journal of Peace Research 20: 537–546.Google Scholar
Every Casualty Worldwide (2016) www.everycasualty.org (accessed October 27).Google Scholar
Extraordinary African Chambers (2016) Ministère Public v. Hissein Habré,” www.chambresafricaines.org/pdf/Jugement_complet.pdf (accessed October 28).Google Scholar
Faust, D. G. (2008) This Republic of Suffering. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.Google Scholar
Fischhoff, B., Atran, S. Fischhoff, N. (2007) “Counting casualties: A framework for respectful, useful records.” Journal of Risk and Uncertainty 34: 1–19.Google Scholar
Forces War Records (2016) “Crimean War records,” www.forces-war-records.co.uk/crimean-war-records (accessed October 26).Google Scholar
Gray, M. W. Marek, S. (2008) “The statistics of genocide.” in J. Asher, D. Banks, and F. J. Scheuren (eds.) Statistical Methods for Human Rights. New York: Springer.Google Scholar
Greenhill, K. M. (2010) “Counting the cost: The politics of numbers in armed conflict.” in P. Andreas and K. M. Greenhill (eds.) Sex, Drugs, and Body Counts: The Politics of Numbers in Global Crime and Conflict. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press: 127–158.Google Scholar
Greenhough, P. R. (1982) Prosperity and Misery in Modern Bengal: The Famine of 1943–1944. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Greenwood, M. (1942) “British loss of life in the wars of 1794–1815 and in 1914–1918, (with discussion).” Journal of the Royal Statistical Society 105: 1–16.Google Scholar
Groves, Robert (2011) “Three eras of survey research.” Public Opinion Quarterly 75: 861–871.Google Scholar
Guatemalan Commission for Historical Clarification (1999) “Guatemala memory of silence: Report of the Commission for Historical Classification Conclusions and Recommendations,” www.aaas.org/sites/default/files/migrate/uploads/mos_en.pdf (accessed October 28, 2016).Google Scholar
Harrison, M. (2003) “Counting Soviet deaths in the Great Patriotic War: Comment.” Europe-Asia Studies 55: 939–944.Google Scholar
Hayner, P. B. (2011) Unspeakable Truths: Confronting State Terror and Atrocity. New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Haynes, M. (2003) “Counting Soviet deaths in the Great Patriotic War: A note.” Europe-Asia Studies 55: 303–309.Google Scholar
Heinzelman, J. Meier, P. (2012) “Crowdsourcing for human rights monitoring: Challenges and opportunities for information collection and verification.” in J. Lannon, and E. Halpin (eds.) Human Rights and Information Communication Technologies: Trends and Consequences of Use. Hershey, PA: IGI Global: 123–138.Google Scholar
Herold, M. (2008) “University of New Hampshire” http://pubpages.unh.edu/~mwherold/Anotherweddingpartymassacre_July62008.html (accessed November 26, 2016).Google Scholar
Hersch, L. (1925) “La mortalité causée par la guerre mondiale.” Metron V (I): 89–133.Google Scholar
Heuveline, P. (2015) “The boundaries of genocide: Quantifying the uncertainty of the death toll during the Pol Pot regime in Cambodia (1975–79).” Population Studies 69 (2): 201–218.Google Scholar
Hirschman, C., Preston, S. Loi, M. V. (1995) “Vietnamese casualties during the American War: A new estimate.” Population and Development Review 21 (4): 783–812.Google Scholar
Hobhouse, E. (1902) The Brunt of War, and Where It Fell. London: Methuen and Company.Google Scholar
Hochschild, A. (1998) King Leopold’s Ghost. New York: Houghton Mifflin.Google Scholar
Hoover Green, A. (2010) “Learning the hard way at the ICTY: Statistical evidence of human rights violations in an adversarial information environment,” in A. Smeulers (ed.) Collective Violence and International Criminal Justice: An Interdisciplinary Approach. Antwerp, Belgium: Intersentia: 325–354.Google Scholar
Howland, T. (2008) “How El Rescate, a small nongovernmental organization, contributed to the transformation of the human rights situation in El Salvador.” Human Rights Quarterly 30: 703–757.Google Scholar
Humanitarian Tracker (2016a) www.humanitariantracker.org/ (accessed October 28).Google Scholar
Humanitarian Tracker (2016b) www.slideshare.net/slideshow/embed_code/15862056 (accessed October 28).Google Scholar
Human Rights Data Analysis Group (2016) “Guatemala: Collecting and protecting human rights data in Guatemala (1991–2013)” (accessed October 28).Google Scholar
Human Rights Watch (2008) “Troops in contact: Airstrikes and civilian deaths in Afghanistan,” www.hrw.org/report/2008/09/08/troops-contact/airstrikes-and-civilian-deaths-afghanistan (accessed November 26).Google Scholar
Human Security Report Project (2010) Human Security Report 2009/2010: The Causes of Peace and the Shrinking Costs of War. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
International Committee for the Red Cross (2013) “Professional standards for protection work: Carried out by humanitarian and human rights actors in armed conflict and other situations of violence,” www.icrc.org/eng/assets/files/other/icrc-002-0999.pdf (accessed March 26, 2017).Google Scholar
Iraq Body Count (2016) www.iraqbodycount.org/ (accessed October 27).Google Scholar
Iraq Family Health Survey Study Group (2008) “Violence-related mortality in Iraq from 2002 to 2006.” New England Journal of Medicine 358: 484–493.Google Scholar
Iraq Living Conditions Survey 2004 (2005) Baghdad, Iraq: Central Organization for Statistics and Information Technology, Ministry of Planning and Development Cooperation.Google Scholar
Jewell, N. P., Spagat, M. Jewell, B. L. (2013) “MSE and casualty counts: Assumptions, interpretations and challenges,” in T. B. Seybolt, J. Aronson, and B. Fischhoff (eds.) Counting Civilian Casualties: An Introduction to Recording and Estimating Nonmilitary Deaths in Conflict. Oxford: Oxford University Press: 185–211.Google Scholar
Jones, H. E., Hickman, M., Welton, N. J., De Angelis, D., Harris, R. J. Ades, A. E. (2014) “Recapture or precapture? Fallibility of standard capture-recapture methods in the presence of referrals between sources.” American Journal of Epidemiology 179: 1383–1393.Google Scholar
Kirk, D. (2011) “South Korea: Truth but no reconciliation.” International Justice Tribune, #121, February 2.Google Scholar
Klingberg, F. L. (1966) “Predicting the termination of war: Battle Casualties and Population losses.” Journal of Conflict Resolution 10: 129–171.Google Scholar
Kosovo Memory Book (2000) www.kosovomemorybook.org/ (accessed October 27, 2016).Google Scholar
Kreutz, J. (2006) “Patterns of major armed conflicts 1990–2005.” in L. Harbom, and L. Wallensteen (eds.) Sipri Yearbook 2006. Oxford: Oxford University Press: 173–191.Google Scholar
Krüger, J. Ball, P. (2014) “Evaluation of the database of the Kosovo Memory Book.” Human Rights Data Analysis Group, https://hrdag.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/04/Evaluation_of_the_Database_KMB-2014.pdf Google Scholar
Landman, T. Carvalho, E. (2010) Measuring Human Rights. New York: Routledge.Google Scholar
Laveran, (1863) “De la mortalité des armeé en campagne au point de vue de l’étiologie.” in Annales d’hygiene publique et de medicine légale, 2ème serie, tome 19. Paris: Baillière.Google Scholar
Leroy-Beaulieu, P. (1869) Contemporary Wars: 1853–1866; Statistical Researches Respecting the Loss of Men and Money Involved in Them. London: London Peace Society.Google Scholar
Lewy, G. (1978) America in Vietnam. New York. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Lucas, S. R. (2012) “The road to hell…: The statistics proposal as the final solution to the sovereign’s human rights question.” Wisconsin International Law Journal 30 (2): 259–343.Google Scholar
Lum, K., Price, M. E. Banks, D. (2013) “Applications of multiple systems estimation in human rights research.” The American Statistician 67 (4): 191–200.Google Scholar
Mallet, B. (1918) “Vital statistics as affected by war.” Journal of the Royal Statistical Society 81: 1–36.Google Scholar
Manrique, D., Price, M. E. Gohdes, A. (2013) “Multiple systems estimation techniques for estimating casualties in armed conflicts.” in T. B. Seybolt, J. Aronson, and B. Fischhoff (eds.) Counting Civilian Casualties: An Introduction to Recording and Estimating Nonmilitary Deaths in Conflict. Oxford: Oxford University Press: 165–182.Google Scholar
McNamara, R. S. (1991) “The post-Cold War world: Implications for military expenditure in developing countries,” in Proceedings of the World Bank Annual Conference on Development Economics, 1991. Washington, DC: International Bank for Re-construction and Development: 95 Washington, DC: 126.Google Scholar
McPherson, J. M. (1988) Battle Cry of Freedom. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Ministry of Government Administration and Home Affairs Support for Past Affairs (2017) “Report on the Truth and Reconciliation Committee.” http://pasthistory.go.kr/cop/bbs/selectBoardArticle.do (accessed March 25).Google Scholar
Minor, E. (2012) “Towards the recording of every casualty: Analysis and policy recommendations from a study of 40 casualty recorders.” Oxford Research Group, www.oxfordresearchgroup.org.uk/sites/default/files/TowardsTheRecordingOfEveryCasualty_0.pdf (accessed October 28, 2016).Google Scholar
Minor, E., Sloboda, J. Dardagan, H. (2012) “Good practice in conflict casualty recording: Testimony, detailed analysis and recommendations form a study of 40 casualty recorders.” Oxford Research Group, www.everycasualty.org/practice/methods-research (accessed October 28, 2016).Google Scholar
Motlagh, J. (2010) “Petraeus toughens Afghan rules of engagement.” Time, August 6, http://content.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,2008863,00.html (accessed November 26, 2016).Google Scholar
Nahm, A. (1993) Historical Dictionary of the Republic of Korea. Metuchen, NJ: Scarecrow Press.Google Scholar
Norman, R. (1995) Ethics, Killing, and War. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Obituary (1933) “Sir Bernard Mallet.” Journal of the Royal Statistical Society 96: 148–151.Google Scholar
Orend, B. (2000a) Michael Walzer on War and Justice. Cardiff: University of Wales Press.Google Scholar
Orend, B. (2000b) War and International Justice: A Kantian Perspective. Waterloo: Wilfrid Laurier Press.Google Scholar
Parker, G. (1997) The Thirty Years’ War, 2nd ed. New York: Viking Press.Google Scholar
Petrovich, V. (2004/05) “Otechestvennaia istoriia XX-nachalo XXI v. Kurs lektsii dlia distantsionnogo obucheniia po uchebniku avtorskogo kollektiva pod rukovodstvom akademika RAN A. O. Chubar’iana.” National history of the twentieth — beginning of the twenty-first centuries. Course of lectures for distance learning following the textbook by the author collective under the leadership of Russian Academy of Sciences Academician A. O. Chubar’ian: http://his.1september.ru/articlef.php?ID=200500109 (accessed March 24, 2017). (Editor note: confusing reference – Russian website).Google Scholar
Pinker, S. (2011) The Better Angels of Our Nature. New York: Viking Press.Google Scholar
Raleigh, C., Linke, A., Hegre, H. Karlsen, J. (2010) “Introducing ACLED: An armed conflict location and event dataset.” Journal of Peace Research (47) 5: 651–660.Google Scholar
Roberts, A. (2010) “Lives and statistics: Are 90% of war victims civilians?” Survival 52: 115–136.Google Scholar
Rockel, S. J. (2009) “Collateral damage: A comparative history.” in S. J. Rockel, and R. Halpern (eds.) Inventing Collateral Damage: Civilian Casualties, War, and Empire. Toronto: Between the Lines: 1–93.Google Scholar
Rummel, R. J. (1992) Democide: Nazi Genocide and Mass Murder. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers.Google Scholar
Rummel, R. J. (1997) Statistics of Democide: Genocide and Mass Murder Since 1900. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers.Google Scholar
Sandberg, B. (2009) “Only the sack and the noose for its citizens: Atrocities and civilian casualties during the French Wars of religion.” in S. J. Rockel, and R. Halpern (eds.) Inventing Collateral Damage: Civilian Casualties, War, and Empire. Toronto: Between the Lines: 97–114.Google Scholar
Selden, M. Dong-choon, K. (2010) “South Korea’s Embattled Truth and Reconciliation Commission,” http://fpif.org/south_koreas_embattled_truth_and_reconciliation_commission (accessed October 27, 2016).Google Scholar
Seybolt, T. B. (2013) “Significant numbers: Civilian casualties and strategic peacebuilding,” in T. B. Seybolt, J. Aronson, and B. Fischhoff (eds.) Counting Civilian Casualties: An Introduction to Recording and Estimating Nonmilitary Deaths in Conflict. Oxford: Oxford University Press: 15–28.Google Scholar
Silva, R. Ball, P. (2006) “The profile of human rights violations in Timor Leste, 1974–1999.” Human Rights Data Analysis Group, The Benetech Initiative, https://hrdag.org/content/timorleste/Benetech-Report-to-CAVR.pdf (accessed October 27, 2016).Google Scholar
Slim, H. (2008) Killing Civilians. New York: Columbia University Press.Google Scholar
Sloboda, J. (2008) “Can there be any ‘just war’ if we do not document the dead and injured?,” Oxford Research Group, www.oxfordresearchgroup.org.uk/publications/briefing_papers/can_there_be_any_just_war_if_we_do_not_document_dead_and_injured (accessed October 24, 2016).Google Scholar
Sloboda, J., Dardagan, H., Spagat, M. Hsiao-Rei Hicks, M. (2013) “Iraq body count: A case study in the uses of incident-based conflict casualty data.” in T. B. Seybolt, J. Aronson, and B. Fischhoff (eds.) Counting Civilian Casualties: An Introduction to Recording and Estimating Nonmilitary Deaths in Conflict. Oxford: Oxford University Press: 53–76.Google Scholar
Sokolov, B. (2009) “How to calculate human losses during the Second World War.” Journal of Slavic Military Studies 22: 437–458.Google Scholar
Spagat, M. (2010) “Ethical and data-integrity problems in the second Lancet survey of mortality in Iraq.” Defence and Peace Economics 21: 1–41.Google Scholar
Spagat, M. (2012) “Estimating the human costs of war: The sample survey approach.” in M. R. Garfinkel and S. Skaperdas (eds.) The Oxford Handbook of the Economics of Peace and Conflict. Oxford: Oxford University Press: 318–341.Google Scholar
Spagat, M. (2014) “A triumph of remembering: Kosovo memory book,” www.kosovskaknjigapamcenja.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/Michael-_Spagat_Evaluation_of_the_Database_KMB_December_10_2014.pdf (accessed October 27, 2016).Google Scholar
Spagat, M. van Weezel, S. (2016) “Half a million excess deaths in the Iraq War: Terms and conditions may apply,” http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2664659 (accessed on October 27).Google Scholar
Spiegel, P. B. Salama, P. (2000) “War and mortality in Kosovo, 1998–99: An Epidemiological Testimony.” Lancet 355: 2204–2209.Google Scholar
Stevenson, R. (2005) Bengal Tiger and British Lion: An Account of the Bengal Famine of 1943. Lincoln, NE: iUniverse.Google Scholar
Sundberg, R. Melander, W. (2013) “Introducing the UCDP Georeferenced Event Dataset.” Journal of Peace Research 50 (4): 523–532.Google Scholar
Thayer, T. C. (1985) War without Fronts: The American Experience in Vietnam. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.Google Scholar
Twain, M. (1905) King Leopold’s Soliloquy. Boston: P. R. Warren.Google Scholar
United Nations (1991) “United Nations Manual on the Effective Prevention and Investigation of Extra-Legal, Arbitrary and Summary Executions,” U.N. Doc. E/ST/CSDHA/.12, http://hrlibrary.umn.edu/instree/executioninvestigation-91.html (accessed October 28, 2016).Google Scholar
Uppsala Conflict Data Program (2016) www.pcr.uu.se/research/ucdp/ (accessed October 27).Google Scholar
Ushahidi (2016) www.ushahidi.com/ (accessed October 28).Google Scholar
US Institute of Peace (2012) “Truth Commission: South Korea 2005,” www.usip.org/publications/2012/04/truth-commission-south-korea-2005 (accessed October 27, 2016).Google Scholar
van der Windt, P. Humphreys, M. (2016) “Crowdseeding conflict data.” Journal of Conflict Resolution 60: 748–781.Google Scholar
Walzer, Michael (1978) Just and Unjust Wars. New York: Basic Books.Google Scholar
War Office (1922) Statistics of the Military Effort of the British Empire during the Great War 1914–1920. Reprinted by Naval and Military Press.Google Scholar
Winter, J. M. (1977) “The impact of the First World War on civilian health in Britain.” Economic History Review, New Series 30: 487–507.Google Scholar
Wright, D. G. (2011) “The marathon stone,” Surprised by Time (blog), April 8, http://surprisedbytime.blogspot.co.uk/2011/04/marathon-stone.html (accessed October 24, 2016).Google Scholar
Yad Vashem (2017) “The central database of Shoah victims,” https://yvng.yadvashem.org/ (accessed March 25).Google Scholar
Zwierzchowski, J. Tabeau, E. (2010) “The 1992–95 War in Bosnia and Herzegovina: Census-based multiple system estimation of casualties’ undercount,” Conference Paper for the International Research Workshop on “The Global Costs of Conflict,” www.icty.org/x/file/About/OTP/War_Demographics/en/bih_casualty_undercount_conf_paper_100201.pdf (accessed October 28, 2016).Google Scholar