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Bias in the Treatment of Non-Germans in the British and American Military Government Courts in Occupied Germany, 1945–46
Published online by Cambridge University Press: 29 September 2020
Abstract
Non-Germans—particularly “displaced persons”—were routinely blamed for crime in occupied western Germany. The Allied and German fixation on foreign gangs, violent criminals, and organized crime syndicates is well documented in contemporary reports, observations, and the press. An abundance of such data has long shaped provocative historical narratives of foreign-perpetrated criminality ranging from extensive disorder through to near uncontrolled anarchy. Such accounts complement assertions of a broader and more generalized crime wave. Over the last 30 years, however, a literature has emerged that casts doubt on the actual extent of lawlessness during the occupation of the west and, in turn, on the level non-German participation in crime. It may be that extensive reporting of non-German criminality at the time reflected the preexisting bigotries of Germans and the Allies, which when combined with anxieties about social and societal integrity became focused on the most marginalized groups in postwar society. This process of “group criminalization” is common and can have different motivations. Regardless of its cause, it was clearly evident in postwar western Germany and we hypothesized that it should have created harsher outcomes for non-German versus German criminal defendants when facing the Allied criminal justice system, such as greater rates of conviction and harsher punishments. This hypothesis was tested using newly collected military government court data from 1945 to 1946. Contrary to expectations, we found a more subtle bias against non-Germans than expected, which we argue reveals important characteristics about the US and British military government criminal justice system.
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- Research Article
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- © The Author(s), 2020. Published by Cambridge University Press on behalf of the Social Science History Association
References
Archival Sources
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Grossmann, Atina (2010) “Entangled histories and lost memories: Jewish survivors in occupied Germany, 1945–49,” in Patt, Avinoam J. and Berkowitz, Michael (eds.) “We Are Here”: New Approaches to Jewish Displaced Persons in Postwar Germany. Wayne State University Press.Google Scholar
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Herman, Judith L. (2015) Trauma and Recovery: The Aftermath of Violence-From Domestic Abuse to Political Terror. Basic Books.Google Scholar
Hilton, Laura J. (2018) “Who was ‘worthy’? How empathy drove policy decisions about the uprooted in occupied Germany, 1945–1948.” Holocaust & Genocide Studies 32 (1): 8–28.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hudson, Walter M. (2015) Army Diplomacy: American Military Occupation and Foreign Policy after World War II. University of Kentucky Press.Google Scholar
Jacobmeyer, Wolfgang (1985) Vom Zwangsarbeiter zum heimatlosen Ausländer: Die Displaced Persons in Westdeutschland, 1945–1951. Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jenness, Valerie (2004) “Explaining criminalization: From demography and status politics to globalization and modernization.” Annual Review of Sociology 30: 150–71.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kehoe, Thomas J. (2015) “Social disorder, crime, and governance during the US Military Occupation of Germany, 1945–1946.” PhD Diss., University of Melbourne.Google Scholar
Kehoe, Thomas J. (2016) “Control, disempowerment, fear, and fantasy: Violent criminality during the early American occupation of Germany, March–July 1945.” Australian Journal of Politics & History 62 (4): 561–75.Google Scholar
Kehoe, Thomas J. (2019) The Art of Occupation: Crime and Governance in American-Controlled Germany, 1944–1949. Ohio University Press.Google Scholar
Klessmann, Christoph (1982) Die doppelte Staatsgründung. Deutsche Geschichte 1945–1955. Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht.Google Scholar
Kopp, Kristin (2005) “Constructing racial difference in colonial Poland,” in Eric, Ames, Marcia, Klotz, and Lora, Wildenthal (eds.) Germany’s Colonial Pasts. University of Nebraska Press.Google Scholar
Kosyra, Herbert (1980) Nach der Stunde Null. Die deutsche Kriminalpolizei in den Jahren 1945–1955. J. G. Bläschke Verlag.Google Scholar
Kramer, Alan (1988) ‘“Law abiding Germans?’ Social disintegration, crime and the re-imposition of order in post-war Western Germany, 1945–49,” in Evans, Richard J. (ed.) The German Underworld: Deviants and Outcasts in German History. Routledge.Google Scholar
Kuber, Johannes (2018) “‘We are glad they are here, but we are not rejoicing!’ The Catholic clergy under French and American occupation,” in Erlichman, Camilo and Knowles, Christopher (eds.) Transforming Occupation in the Western Zones of Germany: Politics, Everyday Life and Social Interactions, 1945–55. Bloomsbury Academic.Google Scholar
Lavalette, Michael, and Mooney, Gerry (2013) “The Scottish state and the criminalization of football fans.” Criminal Justice Matters 93 (1): 22–24.Google Scholar
MacDonogh, Giles (2009) After the Reich: The Brutal History of the Allied Occupation. Basic Books.Google Scholar
Meier, Robert F. (2019) “Deviance, social control, and criminalization,” in Deflem, Mathieu (ed.) The Handbook of Social Control. Wiley Blackwell.Google Scholar
Morgan, Frank, and Weatherburn, D. (2006) “The extent and location of crime,” in Goldsmith, Andrew, Israel, Mark, and Daly, Kathleen (eds.) Crime and Justice: A Guide to Criminology. Lawbook Co.: 15–44.Google Scholar
Nobleman, Eli E. (1946) “American military government courts in Germany.” The American Journal of International Law 40 (4): 803–11.Google Scholar
Nobleman, Eli E. (1950a) “American military government courts in Germany.” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 267: 87–97.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nobleman, Eli E. (1950b) “American military government courts in Germany: Their role in the democratization of the German people.” S.J.D. Diss., New York University.Google Scholar
Rusinek, Bernd-A. (1989) Gesellschaft in der Katastrophe: Terror, Illegalität, Widerstand Köln 1944/45. Klartext Verlag.Google Scholar
Rusinek, Bernd-A. (2004) “Ende des Zweiten Weltkriegs local, regional, international. Forschungsstand und Perspektiven,” in Rusinek, Bernd-A (ed.) Kriegsende 1945: Verbrechen, Katastrophen, Befreiungen in nationaler und intenationaler Perspektive. Wallstein Verlag: 7–23.Google Scholar
Schönke, Adolf (1948) “Criminal law and criminality in Germany of today.” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 260, Postwar Reconstruction in Western Germany: 137–43.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Seipp, Adam R. (2013) Strangers in the Wild Place: Refugees, Americans, and a German Town, 1945–1952. Indiana University Press.Google Scholar
Sellars, Kirsten (2013) “Crimes against Peace” and International Law, Cambridge Studies in International and Comparative Law 97. Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shils, Edward A. (1946) “Social and psychological aspects of displacement and repatriation.” Journal of Social Issues 2 (3): 3–18.Google Scholar
Singer, Mark I., Anglin, Trina Menden, Song, Li yu, and Lunghofer, Lisa (1995) “Adolescent’s exposure to violence and associated symptoms of psychological trauma.” JAMA 273 (6): 447–82.Google Scholar
Smith, Jean Edward, ed. (1974) The Papers of General Lucius D. Clay. Germany 1945–1949. Vol. 1. Indiana University Press.Google Scholar
St. John, Craig, and Heald-Moore, Tamara (1995) “Fear of black strangers.” Social Science Research 24: 262–80.Google Scholar
Szanajda, Andrew (2007) Restoration of Justice in Post-War Hesse, 1945–1949. Lexington Books.Google Scholar
Wyman, Mark (1989) DP: Europe’s Displaced Persons, 1945–1951. The Balch Institute Press.Google Scholar
Yusef, Kideste Wilder, and Yusef, Tseleq (2018) “Criminalizing race, racializing crime: Assessing the discipline of criminology through a historical lens,” in Ruth, Ann Triplett (ed.) The Handbook of the History and Philosophy of Criminology. John Wiley & Sons.Google Scholar
Ziemke, Earl F. (1975) The US Army in the Occupation of Germany, 1944–1946. Center of Military History, United States Army.Google Scholar
Bendig, “Dachau War Diary,” July 23, 1945, BayHStA, OMGUS Reports, No. 168.Google Scholar
Cofran, Everett S. “Daily Reports,” BayHStA, OMGUS Reports, No. 194.Google Scholar
Military Government Court Records (alphabetically by district), TNA, FO 1060.Google Scholar
Military Government Court Summaries, TNA, FO 1060/1182.Google Scholar
Military Government crime statistics: FO 1060/1101.Google Scholar
Military Government crime statistics, TNA, FO 1060/44.Google Scholar
Office of the Supreme Court, Control Commission for Germany, British Army of the Rhine, “Subject: Karl Pickel,” November, 25 1948, TNA, FO 1060/4116.Google Scholar
Public Safety HQ Military Government Hamburg, “Subject: Monthly Report on Morale and Public Opinion,” November, 5 1946, TNA, FO 1050/251.Google Scholar
Counter Intelligence Corps Investigations, NACP, RG 319, Entry A1-134-A, Container 21.Google Scholar
East, William G. “Subject: Court Register,” September, 1 1945, NACP, RG 466, Entry E-61, Box 39.Google Scholar
Military Government Court Records (alphabetically by district), NACP, RG 466, Entry E-61.Google Scholar
“Koroly/Alois,” review case file: NACP, RG 466, Entry E-63, Box 1910.Google Scholar
“Korona/Salmon,” case file: NACP, RG 466, Entry E-61, Box 1910.Google Scholar
“Müller/Maria,” case file. File available in: NACP, RG 466, Entry E-63, Box 1561.Google Scholar
Vacca, Peter. Office of Military Government for Bavaria Intelligence Branch, “Weekly and Periodic Intelligence Reports,” NACP, RG 260, Entry A1 899, Boxes 168 and 169.Google Scholar
Wickersham, C. W. “Address by Brigadier General C. W. Wickersham, U.S.A. at the Meeting of the Joint Committees on Military and Naval Affairs of the American Bar Association and the Federal Bar Association at Washington D.C., January 13, 1943, 8.00pm,” January, 13 1943, RG-6/34/1.131 Box 2 (47075).Google Scholar
Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force (SHAEF), Office of the Chief of Staff. Handbook for Military Government in Germany: Prior to Defeat or Surrender. 1945.Google Scholar
United States Army Service Forces, Military Government Handbook Germany. Section 2M: Proclamations, Ordinances, and Laws Issued by Allied Military Government in Germany, January 6, 1945.Google Scholar
War Department, FM 27-5. United States Army and Navy Manual of Military Government and Civil Affairs, December, 22 1943.Google Scholar
War Department, Military Government Information Guide: The Statutory Criminal Law of Germany. War Department, 1946.Google Scholar
Berdejó, Carlos (2018) “Criminalizing race: Racial disparities in plea.” Boston College Law Review 59 (4): 1188–1249.Google Scholar
Best, Geoffrey (1980) Humanity in Warfare: The Modern History of the International Law of Armed Conflicts. Weidenfeld & Nicolson.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Boehling, Rebecca (1996) A Question of Priorities: Democratic Reform and Economic Recovery in Postwar Germany. Frankfurt, Munich, and Stuttgart under US Occupation 1945–1949. Berghahn Books.Google Scholar
Burleigh, Michael, and Wippermann, Wolfgang (1991) The Racial State, Germany 1933–1945. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Canoy, Jose Raymund (2007) The Discreet Charm of the Police State: The Landpolizei and the Transformation of Bavaria, 1945–1965. Brill.Google Scholar
Carruthers, Susan L. (2016) The Good Occupation: American Soldiers and the Hazards of Peace. Harvard University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chiricos, Ted, Hogan, Michael, and Gertz, Marc (1997) “Racial composition of neighborhood and fear of crime.” Criminology 35 (1): 107–31.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cunneen, Chris (2006) “Racism, discrimination and the over-representation of indigenous people in the criminal justice system: Some conceptual and explanatory issues.” Current Issues in Criminal Justice 17: 329–46.Google Scholar
Della Porta, Donatella (1995) Social Movements, Political Violence, and the State: A Comparative Analysis of Italy and Germany. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Dobbins, James, McGinn, John G., Crane, Keith, Jones, Seth G., Lal, Rollie, Rathmel, Andrew, Swanger, Rachel M., and Timilsina, Anga R. (2003) America’s Role in Nation-Building: From Germany to Iraq. RAND.Google Scholar
Dundes, Alan (1971) “A study of ethnic slurs: The Jew and the Polack in the United States.” The Journal of American Folklore 84 (332): 186–203.Google Scholar
Evans, Richard J. (1996) Rituals of Retribution: Capital Punishment in Germany, 1600–1987. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Fairchild, Erika (1988) German Police: Ideals and Reality in the Postwar Years. Charles Thomas.Google Scholar
Feinstein, Margarete Myers (2010) Holocaust Survivors in Postwar Germany, 1945–1957. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Fitzgibbon, Wendy (2004) “Pre-emptive criminalization: Risk control and alternative futures,” in Issues in Community and Criminal Justice. ICCJ Monograph.Google Scholar
Fitzgibbon, Wendy (2010) “Risikoträger oder verletzliche Individuen: über die preemptive Kriminalisierung von Menschen mit psychischen Problemen,” in Paul Bettina and Henning Schmidt-Semisch (eds.) Risiko Gesundheit: Über Risiken und Nebenwirkungen der Gesundheitsgesellschaft. VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften.Google Scholar
Frederiksen, Oliver J. (1953) The American Military Occupation of Germany: 1945–1953. Historical Division, Headquarters, United States Army, Europe.Google Scholar
Freeman, Dexter L. (1948) Hesse: A New German State. Druck-und Verlagshaus Frankfurt a. M. GmbH.Google Scholar
Gimbel, John (1961) A German Community under American Occupation. Stanford University Press.Google Scholar
Grossmann, Atina (2010) “Entangled histories and lost memories: Jewish survivors in occupied Germany, 1945–49,” in Patt, Avinoam J. and Berkowitz, Michael (eds.) “We Are Here”: New Approaches to Jewish Displaced Persons in Postwar Germany. Wayne State University Press.Google Scholar
Guerra, Nancy G., Huesmann, L. Rowell, and Spindler, Anja (2003) “Community violence exposure, social cognition, and aggression among urban elementary school children.” Child Development 74 (5): 1561–76.Google ScholarPubMed
Henke, Klaus-Dietmar (1995) Die amerikanische besetzung Deutschlands. Munich: R. Oldenbourg Verlag.Google Scholar
Herman, Judith L. (2015) Trauma and Recovery: The Aftermath of Violence-From Domestic Abuse to Political Terror. Basic Books.Google Scholar
Hilton, Laura J. (2018) “Who was ‘worthy’? How empathy drove policy decisions about the uprooted in occupied Germany, 1945–1948.” Holocaust & Genocide Studies 32 (1): 8–28.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hudson, Walter M. (2015) Army Diplomacy: American Military Occupation and Foreign Policy after World War II. University of Kentucky Press.Google Scholar
Jacobmeyer, Wolfgang (1985) Vom Zwangsarbeiter zum heimatlosen Ausländer: Die Displaced Persons in Westdeutschland, 1945–1951. Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jenness, Valerie (2004) “Explaining criminalization: From demography and status politics to globalization and modernization.” Annual Review of Sociology 30: 150–71.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kehoe, Thomas J. (2015) “Social disorder, crime, and governance during the US Military Occupation of Germany, 1945–1946.” PhD Diss., University of Melbourne.Google Scholar
Kehoe, Thomas J. (2016) “Control, disempowerment, fear, and fantasy: Violent criminality during the early American occupation of Germany, March–July 1945.” Australian Journal of Politics & History 62 (4): 561–75.Google Scholar
Kehoe, Thomas J. (2019) The Art of Occupation: Crime and Governance in American-Controlled Germany, 1944–1949. Ohio University Press.Google Scholar
Klessmann, Christoph (1982) Die doppelte Staatsgründung. Deutsche Geschichte 1945–1955. Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht.Google Scholar
Kopp, Kristin (2005) “Constructing racial difference in colonial Poland,” in Eric, Ames, Marcia, Klotz, and Lora, Wildenthal (eds.) Germany’s Colonial Pasts. University of Nebraska Press.Google Scholar
Kosyra, Herbert (1980) Nach der Stunde Null. Die deutsche Kriminalpolizei in den Jahren 1945–1955. J. G. Bläschke Verlag.Google Scholar
Kramer, Alan (1988) ‘“Law abiding Germans?’ Social disintegration, crime and the re-imposition of order in post-war Western Germany, 1945–49,” in Evans, Richard J. (ed.) The German Underworld: Deviants and Outcasts in German History. Routledge.Google Scholar
Kuber, Johannes (2018) “‘We are glad they are here, but we are not rejoicing!’ The Catholic clergy under French and American occupation,” in Erlichman, Camilo and Knowles, Christopher (eds.) Transforming Occupation in the Western Zones of Germany: Politics, Everyday Life and Social Interactions, 1945–55. Bloomsbury Academic.Google Scholar
Lavalette, Michael, and Mooney, Gerry (2013) “The Scottish state and the criminalization of football fans.” Criminal Justice Matters 93 (1): 22–24.Google Scholar
MacDonogh, Giles (2009) After the Reich: The Brutal History of the Allied Occupation. Basic Books.Google Scholar
Meier, Robert F. (2019) “Deviance, social control, and criminalization,” in Deflem, Mathieu (ed.) The Handbook of Social Control. Wiley Blackwell.Google Scholar
Morgan, Frank, and Weatherburn, D. (2006) “The extent and location of crime,” in Goldsmith, Andrew, Israel, Mark, and Daly, Kathleen (eds.) Crime and Justice: A Guide to Criminology. Lawbook Co.: 15–44.Google Scholar
Nobleman, Eli E. (1946) “American military government courts in Germany.” The American Journal of International Law 40 (4): 803–11.Google Scholar
Nobleman, Eli E. (1950a) “American military government courts in Germany.” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 267: 87–97.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nobleman, Eli E. (1950b) “American military government courts in Germany: Their role in the democratization of the German people.” S.J.D. Diss., New York University.Google Scholar
Rusinek, Bernd-A. (1989) Gesellschaft in der Katastrophe: Terror, Illegalität, Widerstand Köln 1944/45. Klartext Verlag.Google Scholar
Rusinek, Bernd-A. (2004) “Ende des Zweiten Weltkriegs local, regional, international. Forschungsstand und Perspektiven,” in Rusinek, Bernd-A (ed.) Kriegsende 1945: Verbrechen, Katastrophen, Befreiungen in nationaler und intenationaler Perspektive. Wallstein Verlag: 7–23.Google Scholar
Schönke, Adolf (1948) “Criminal law and criminality in Germany of today.” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 260, Postwar Reconstruction in Western Germany: 137–43.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Seipp, Adam R. (2013) Strangers in the Wild Place: Refugees, Americans, and a German Town, 1945–1952. Indiana University Press.Google Scholar
Sellars, Kirsten (2013) “Crimes against Peace” and International Law, Cambridge Studies in International and Comparative Law 97. Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shils, Edward A. (1946) “Social and psychological aspects of displacement and repatriation.” Journal of Social Issues 2 (3): 3–18.Google Scholar
Singer, Mark I., Anglin, Trina Menden, Song, Li yu, and Lunghofer, Lisa (1995) “Adolescent’s exposure to violence and associated symptoms of psychological trauma.” JAMA 273 (6): 447–82.Google Scholar
Smith, Jean Edward, ed. (1974) The Papers of General Lucius D. Clay. Germany 1945–1949. Vol. 1. Indiana University Press.Google Scholar
St. John, Craig, and Heald-Moore, Tamara (1995) “Fear of black strangers.” Social Science Research 24: 262–80.Google Scholar
Szanajda, Andrew (2007) Restoration of Justice in Post-War Hesse, 1945–1949. Lexington Books.Google Scholar
Wyman, Mark (1989) DP: Europe’s Displaced Persons, 1945–1951. The Balch Institute Press.Google Scholar
Yusef, Kideste Wilder, and Yusef, Tseleq (2018) “Criminalizing race, racializing crime: Assessing the discipline of criminology through a historical lens,” in Ruth, Ann Triplett (ed.) The Handbook of the History and Philosophy of Criminology. John Wiley & Sons.Google Scholar
Ziemke, Earl F. (1975) The US Army in the Occupation of Germany, 1944–1946. Center of Military History, United States Army.Google Scholar