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14. Of course, the national security state Zegart analyzes was created in the twentieth century, and is not entirely comparable to the earlier developments discussed here. However, her model is still useful as a point of reference when discussing the War Department's bureaucracy, as we can sift through her claims and pinpoint which ones are relevant to an earlier period.

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40. Dearborn to Lt. Col. Toussard, April 14, 1801; Dearborn to Toussard, June 1, 1801; and Dearborn to Major Cushing, June 1, 1801, National Archives, Records of the Office of the Secretary of War (RG 107), Letters Sent by the Secretary of War Relating to Military Affairs, 1800–1889.

41. Dearborn to Decius Wadsworth, April 7, 1802, in National Archives, Records of the Office of the Secretary of War (RG 107), Letters Sent by the Secretary of War Relating to Military Affairs, 1800–1889; Dearborn to Eli Whitney, June 16, 1801, in National Archives, Records of the Office of the Secretary of War (RG 107), Miscellaneous Letters Sent by the Secretary of War, 1800–1809.

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45. Angevine, The Railroad and the State, 18–21, 48.

46. Angevine, The Railroad and the State, 22–24; Shallat, Structures in the Stream, 80.

47. Henry Dearborn to Brigadier General James Wilkinson, May 12, 1801; and Dearborn to the Commanding Officer of West Point, April 15, 1801, in National Archives, Records of the Office of the Secretary of War (RG 107), Letters Sent by the Secretary of War Relating to Military Affairs, 1800–1889; Crackel, Theodore J., Mr. Jefferson's Army: Political and Social Reform of the Military Establishment, 1801–1809 (New York: New York University Press, 1987), 58–65Google Scholar.

48. Angevine, The Railroad and the State, 24–25; Shallat, Structures in the Stream, 81.

49. Shallat, Structures in the Stream, 100. For one example of these travels, see Report of Captain G. W. Hughes of the Topographical Engineers relative to the working of copper ore, April 10, 1844, in Annual Report of the Secretary of War, 28th Congress, 1st Session, S. Doc. 291.

50. For an example of this sentiment, see William Crawford to Brigadier General Joseph Swift, June 11, 1816, in National Archives, Records of the Office of the Secretary of War (RG 107), Letters Sent by the Secretary of War Relating to Military Affairs, 1800–1889.

51. Shallat, Structures in the Stream.

52. For a somewhat different perspective on how international pressures shaped American state power, see Zolberg, Aristide R., “International Engagement and American Democracy: A Comparative Perspective,” in Shaped by War and Trade: International Influences on American Political Development, ed. Katznelson, Ira and Shefter, Martin (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2002), 24–54CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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54. Shallat, Structures in the Stream.

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57. Shallat, Structures in the Stream, 118.

58. Goetzmann, Army Exploration in the American West; Schubert, The Nation Builders, 44–46; White, Richard, “It's Your Misfortune and None of My Own”: A History of the American West (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1991), chapter 5Google Scholar.

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60. William Crawford to Major James Kearney, May 31, 1816, in National Archives, Records of the Office of the Secretary of War (RG 107), Letters Sent by the Secretary of War Relating to Military Affairs, 1800–1889.

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63. Malone, Opening the West, chapter 3.

64. Angevine, The Railroad and the State, 18–21, 48; Hill, Roads, Rails, and Waterways, 96–105.

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66. Angevine, The Railroad and the State, 114–15.

67. George W. Crawford to Colonel J. J. Abert, July 11, 1849, in Report of the Secretary of War, November 30, 1849, 31st Congress, 1st Session, S. Ex. Doc. 1.

68. Jefferson Davis to Brevet Brigadier General Joseph G. Totten, Chief Engineer, April 5, 1853; Davis to Governor Isaac J. Stevens, Washington Territory, April 8, 1853; and Davis to Lt. R. S. Williamson, May 6, 1853, all in National Archives, Records of the Office of the Secretary of War (RG 107), Letters Sent by the Secretary of War Relating to Military Affairs, 1800–1889; Goetzmann, Army Exploration in the American West, chapter 7.

69. Angevine, The Railroad and the State, 117.

70. Goetzmann, Army Exploration in the American West, chapter 8; Goetzmann, Exploration and Empire: The Explorer and Scientist in the Winning of the American West (New York: Norton, 1978 [1966]), chapter 8Google Scholar.

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75. Schubert, The Nation Builders, chapter 1; Shallat, Structures in the Stream, 43–62.

76. Garry David Ryan, “War Department Topographical Bureau, 1831–1863: An Administrative History,” Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation, The American University, 1968, 20–22.

77. Ryan, “War Department Topographical Bureau,” 47–48.

78. Journal of the House of Representatives of the United States, Volume 14, January 19, 1821.

79. Ibid; Annals of Congress, House of Representatives, 16th Congress, 2nd Session, January 19, 1821.

80. Annals of Congress, House of Representatives, 16th Congress, 2nd Session, January 20, 1821.

81. Annals of Congress, House of Representatives, 16th Congress, 2nd Session, January 20, 1821, 913.

82. Annals of Congress, House of Representatives, 16th Congress, 2nd Session, January 20, 1821, 924–25.

83. Annals of Congress, House of Representatives, 16th Congress, 2nd Session, January 22, 1821, 933–34, and Appendix, 1798–99.

84. American State Papers, Military Affairs Volume 3, Senate, 18th Congress, 2nd Session, January 24, 1825.

85. Register of Debates, 18th Congress, 2nd Session, February 11, 1825, 556.

86. Register of Debates, 18th Congress, 2nd Session, February 11, 1825 (quote on p. 554).

87. Register of Debates, 18th Congress, 2nd Session, February 11, 1825.

88. On Jackson's support for improvements, especially for western states and territories, see Malone, Opening the West.

89. American State Papers, Military Affairs Volume 3, 19th Congress, 1st Session, December 1, 1825.

90. American State Papers, Military Affairs Volume 3, 19th Congress, 2nd Session, November 18, 1826.

91. American State Papers, Military Affairs Volume 3, House of Representatives, 19th Congress, 1st Session, January 16, 1826, 185.

92. American State Papers, Military Affairs Volume 3, House of Representatives, 19th Congress, 1st Session, January 10, 1826.

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94. H.R. 51, 19th Congress, 1st Session, January 16, 1826.

95. Shallat, Structures in the Stream, 152–53, for instance, only discusses Abert's actions from 1831 through 1838. Schubert, The Nation Builders, chapter 2, starts his examination of their campaign for independence beginning in 1829.

96. American State Papers, Military Affairs Volume 3, House of Representatives, 19th Congress, 2nd Session, January 2, 1827.

97. Ibid.

98. American State Papers, Military Affairs Volume 3, House of Representatives, 19th Congress, 2nd Session, January 2, 1827.

99. H.R. 345, 19th Congress, 2nd Session, January 5, 1827.

100. Niles' Weekly Register, November 5, 1825, 157.

101. Niles' Weekly Register, October 22, 1825, 121. Emphasis in the original.

102. The Literary Casket, November 11, 1826, 155; North American, Or, Weekly Journal of Politics, Science, and Literature, November 10, 1827, 202.

103. Schubert, The Nation Builders, 17.

104. Quoted in Ryan, “War Department Topographical Bureau,” 75.

105. H.R. 57, 21st Congress, 1st Session, January 4, 1830; H.R. 96, 22nd Congress, 1st Session, December 23, 1831; Register of Debates, House of Representatives, 21st Congress, 1st Session, March 31, 1830; American State Papers, Military Affairs Volume 4, 21st Congress, 2nd Session, January 14, 1831.

106. Annual Report of the Secretary of War, Lewis Cass, November 21, 1831, 22nd Congress, 1st Session, H. Doc. 2; Schubert, The Nation Builders, 19–20.

107. Annual Report of the Secretary of War, Lewis Cass, November 21, 1831, 22nd Congress, 1st Session, H. Doc. 2; Shallat, Structures in the Stream, 139–40.

108. Register of Debates, Senate, 22nd Congress, 1st Session, June 1, 1832. The bill is S. 137, 22nd Congress, 1st Session, March 5, 1832, also noted in Journal of the Senate of the United States of America, Volume 21, March 5, 1832, when it passed to a second reading.

109. Register of Debates, Senate, 22nd Congress, 1st Session, June 1, 1832.

110. Report from the Topographical Bureau, November 7, 1831, 22nd Congress, 1st Session, H. Doc. 2; Report from the Topographical Bureau, October 30, 1834, 23rd Congress, 2nd Session, S. Doc. 1.

111. Register of Debates, Senate, 23rd Congress, 2nd Session, December 16, 1834.

112. H.R. 567, 23rd Congress, 2nd Session, December 16, 1834; Register of Debates, 23rd Congress, 2nd Session, Appendix, December 16, 1834.

113. Goetzmann, Army Exploration in the American West, 9–11.

114. Ryan, “War Department Topographical Bureau,” 114.

115. Malone, Opening the West, chapter 4.

116. Congressional Globe, 24th Congress, 2nd Session, February 16, 1837; Register of Debates, Senate, 24th Congress, 1^st Session, June 10, 1836.

117. S. 52, 24th Congress, 1st Session, January 13, 1836; H.R. 104, 24th Congress, 1st Session, January 12, 1836.

118. American State Papers, Military Affairs Volume 6, House of Representatives, 24th Congress, 1st Session, January 12, 1836.

119. American State Papers, Military Affairs Volume 6, House of Representatives, 24th Congress, 1st Session, June 23, 1836.

120. Congressional Globe, House of Representatives, 25th Congress, 2nd Session, July 2, 1838.

121. Report from the Topographical Bureau, November 2, 1835, 24th Congress, 1st Session, H. Doc. 2; Report from the Topographical Bureau, November 15, 1836, 24th Congress, 2nd Session, H. Doc. 2; Report from the Topographical Bureau, November 7, 1837, 25th Congress, 2nd Session, S. Doc. 1; Annual Report of the Secretary of War, J. R. Poinsett, November 28, 1838, 25th Congress, 3rd Session, H. Doc. 2; Schubert, The Nation Builders, 21–24; Shallat, Structures in the Stream, 152–53.

122. Report from the Topographical Bureau, November 7, 1837, 25th Congress, 2nd Session, S. Doc. 1.

123. Annual Report of the Secretary of War, J.R. Poinsett, November 28, 1838, 25th Congress, 3rd Session, H. Doc. 2.

124. Baltimore Sun, December 20, 1837, 2.

125. Baltimore Sun, July 17, 1838, 4.

126. Army and Navy Chronicle, February 27, 1840, 136. On the role of service journals in the continuing professionalization of the antebellum military, see Skelton, An American Profession of Arms, 204–5.

127. Shallat, Structures in the Stream, 170–72; Annual Message of the President of the United States to the Two Houses of Congress, December 5, 1848, 30th Congress, 2nd Session, H. Exec. Doc. 1.

128. Chaffin, Pathfinder, 95–97, 242–43; Goetzmann, Army Exploration in the American West, 65–108; Volpe, Vernon L., “The Origins of the Fremont Expeditions: John J. Abert and the Scientific Exploration of the Trans-Mississippi West,” The Historian 62 (2000): 245–63CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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130. Schubert, The Nation Builders, 27.

131. Shallat, Structures in the Stream, 106; Ryan, “War Department Topographical Bureau,” 143–44, 155–59; Schubert, The Nation Builders, 28–29.

132. Journal of the Senate of the United States of America, Volume 44, February 18, 1853; Congressional Globe, 32nd Congress, 2nd Session, February 18, 1853, and February 19, 1853; Goetzmann, Army Exploration in the American West, 262–65.

133. Hill, Roads, Rails, and Waterways, 135–38.

134. Baltimore Sun, October 19, 1849, 1; New York Daily Times, May 27, 1853, 3; New York Daily Times, June 13, 1853, 3; New York Daily Times, July 19, 1853, 8; New York Daily Times, April 11, 1854, 1; American Railway Times, July 7, 1853, 2; American Railway Times, June 1, 1854, 2; American Railway Times, March 5, 1857, 1.

135. Goetzmann, Army Exploration in the American West, 209–10.

136. Goetzmann, Army Exploration in the American West, chapter 7; Angevine, The Railroad and the State, 114–19.

137. Goetzmann, Army Exploration in the American West, 341–42; Annual Report of the Secretary of War, Jefferson Davis, December 4, 1854, 33rd Congress, 2nd Session, S. Ex. Doc. 1.

138. Shallat, Structures in the Stream, 178; Ryan, “War Department Topographical Bureau,” 185–92.

139. Schubert, The Nation Builders, 74–79; Goetzmann, Army Exploration in the American West, 429–33. Goetzmann argues that the Civil War caused the destruction of the topographical corps, but his own evidence clearly indicates the loss of cross-partisan and cross-sectional support for the corps prior to the war's outbreak.

140. Risch, Quartermaster Support of the Army, chapters 6–8; Wilson, The Business of Civil War.

141. Wilson, “The Politics of Procurement.”

142. Wilson, The Business of Civil War, 57–58, 74–78.

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145. Bensel, Yankee Leviathan.

146. Adler and Polsky, “Building the New American Nation,” 107–10.

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