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Published online by Cambridge University Press: 21 March 2016
Throughout Europe in the late middle ages there was a perceptible interest in the way of life and ideals believed to have been followed in the early centuries of Christianity. There was little that was new in this interest; reform movements within the Church from the eleventh century onwards had frequently followed such a path. Accompanying this interest however was a desire by laymen to live in a pious and holy fashion; not to enter the coenobitic life rejecting the world as they might have done in earlier centuries but to live a religious life while remaining attached to the outside world. Perhaps the best known manifestation of this spirit was in the emergence of the Brethren of the Common Life in Northern Europe in the fifteenth century; another manifestation of the same kind can be found in the lower echelons of English society in the fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries with the widespread appearance of men who vowed to adopt the lifestyle of the desert fathers while performing labouring functions useful to society – as hermits, following the rule of Saint Paul the first hermit.
1 [R.M.] Clay, [The] hermits and anchorites [of medieval England (London 1914)] is the only work in English dealing specifically with the subject. Cutts, E.L., ‘The hermits and recluses of the middle ages’, Art Journal’2 (1860) pp. 17–19 Google Scholar is a general article, particularly concerned with illustrating the subject. Information about hermits and the eremetic life can be found in an article by Doyere, P. under ‘Ermites’ in DDC v, pp. 412–29 Google Scholar. Useful also is L. Gougard, Ermites et reclus (Liege 1928).
2 See [H.E.] Allen, Writings ascribed to Richard Rolle (New York 1929) pp. 324–29.
3 These are discussed briefly in Clay, Hermits and anchorites pp. 86–88 and Allen, Writings ascribed to Richard Rolle, pp. 329–33.
4 See the references given in ODCC under ‘Paul of Thebes’. Jerome’s Life is most easily available in the translation by H. Waddell, The desert fathers (London 1936) pp. 33–54 which is based on Rosweyde’s edition of the Vitae patrum (Antwerp 1615).
5 The golden legend of Jacobus de Voragine, translated by G. Ryan and H. Ripperger (New York 1969) pp. 88–90. This was a popular work in the fifteenth century. Four printed editions were issued in England between 1483 and 1500 SIC nos 24873–6.
6 These were the episodes frequently portrayed by painters who depicted episodes from the life of St. Paul the first hermit. His popular attributes in art are a raven with a loaf of bread, a palm tree and a lion, see G. Ferguson, Signs and symbols in christian art (Oxford 1954) p. 138.
7 ‘Yf frere Austyn be trewe; For he ordeynede that ordre’, (William Langland, The vision of William concerning Piers the Ploughman,] ed [W.W.] Skeat (London 1924) p. 454 C passus XVIII, lines 281–4.
8 F. Roth, The English Austin friars 1249–1S3S (2 vols New York 1961–66); A. Gwynn, The English Austin friars in the time of Wyclif (London 1940); cf. Clay, Hermits and anchorites, p. 86, ‘…some English hermits belonged to a branch of the Augustinians called ‘the order of St. Paul the first hermit’ ‘. However she gives no evidence for this statement, merely pointing out that they must not be confused with the Augustinian hermits. There is no apparent evidence for this connection with the Augustinians and I have not discovered evidence for an order rather than merely a rule of St. Paul.
9 ‘Y habited as an hermyte, an ordre by hym-selve; Religioun sanq reule and resonable obedience.’, B passus 13 lines 285–6, Skeat, p. 402. The translations in the text are taken from Piers the Ploughman, [trans J.F. Goodridge, (2 ed London 1966).] p. 160.
10 Piers the Ploughman, p. 26; ‘Grete lobies and longe that loth were to swynke clothede hem in copies to be knowe fro othere and made hem-selve eremytes hure eise to have,’ C Passus I lines 53–57. Skeat, p. 6.
11 ‘It is accorded and assented that of every person that goeth begging and is able to serve or labour it shall be done of him as of him that departeth out of the Hundred and other places aforesaid without letters testimonial as afore is said, except people of religion and hermits having letters testimonial of their ordinaries’, Statutes of the Realm, II p. 58, 12 Richard II, cap 7.
12 See for example the entries in The register of Thomas Beckington, bishop of Bath and Wells 1443–6$, ed H.C.M. Lyte, (Somerset Record Society 49, 50 1934–35), nos 121, 122, 688. On each occasion the bishop is described as investing the hermit with his own hands with a habit suitable to the estate of the hermit. The names of the witnesses were noted on each occasion.
13 [The] register of Edmund Lacy, [bishop of Exeter 1420-ss: Registrum commune] ed [G.R. Dunstan (Canterbury and York Society 1967)] III pp. 88–89.
14 Ibid. p. 90, 6 November 1450.
15 Surviving pontificals to be found in English libraries are listed in [J.] Bruckmann, ‘Latin manuscript pontificals [and benedictionals in England and Wales’, Traditio 29] (1973),] pp. 391–458. Those containing references to ceremonies for the benediction of hermits or their garments are (i) Cambridge, Corpus Christi College no 79, a London pontifical of the early fifteenth century which has some later additions including the order for the clothing and blessing of a hermit; (ii) Cambridge University Library Ff.VI.i., a York pontifical written in the thirteenth century and enlarged in the early sixteenth century; edited [W.G. Henderson,] Liber pontificala Christopher Bainbridge, [archiepiscopi Eboracensis,] SS LXI 1873); (iii) Cambridge University Library Mm.III.21, written for John Russell bishop of Lincoln (1480–94); (iv) Exeter cathedral library ms no 3513, a pontifical written in the late fourteenth or early fifteenth century which belonged to Edmund Lacy, bishop of Exeter (1420–55) who left it to his cathedral century; edited [R. Barnes,] Liber pontificalis of Edmund Lacy,[bishop of Exeter,] (Exeter 1847); (v) Oxford Bodleian MS Rawl C 549, fifteenth century, diocese unknown; (vi) Oxford Bodleian, MS Tanner 5, fifteenth century, province of Canterbury but diocese unknown, (vii) Pontificai belonging to Thomas Bele, titular bishop of Lydda and suffragan to the bishop of London in the 1520s, discussed in [F.] Eeles, ‘Two sixteenth century pontificals [formerly used in England’, Transactions of the St. Paul’s ecclesiogical society 7 (1911–15)] pp. 69–90; the section of this manuscript containing the office for the benediction of a hermit of Saint Paul is reproduced by Clay, Hermits and anchorites, pp. 199–202.
16 The service for the enclosure of a recluse can be found for example in the twelfth century collection of pontifical offices written for the see of Canterbury, BL MS Cotton Vesp.D.XV, discussed in Bruckmann, ‘Latin manuscript pontificals’ p. 436.
17 This was the case for four of the pontificals – Oxford Bodleian, MS Rawl. C.549, Cambridge Corpus Christi College MS no 79, Cambridge University Library Ff.VI.i., Liber pontijicalis Christopher Bainbridge; see Bruckmann, ‘Latin manu script pontificals’.
18 References to the rule of Saint Paul the first hermit occur in several of the pontificals – Exeter cathedral library ms no 3513, the Lydance pontifical, Liber pontijicalis Christopher Bainbridge and Cambridge University Library Mm. III.2 and Ff. VI. 1. In addition Bodleian MS. Rawl C.549 contains what is clearly a copy of the rule of Saint Paul the first hermit although Saint Paul himself is not named in the text.
19 Liber pontijicalis oj Edmund Lacy pp. 129–31.
20 Cambridge University Library Mm.III.21 fo 192r-v.
21 Eccles, ‘Two sixteenth century pontificals’ pp. 82–5.
22 Liber pontijicalis Christopher Bainbridge pp. 140–1.
23 The illuminated initial depicting the ceremony taken from Corpus Christi College Cambridge Ms 79, the pontifical of bishop Clifford of Worcester 1402–7, and of London 1407—21 is reproduced in W.H. Frere, Pontifical services illustrated from miniatures of the xvth and xvith centuries (2 vols London 1901 for Alcuin club), II plate ix fig 28; This initial letter comes in the section added to the pontifical by Philip Morgan, bishop of Worcester 1419–26, and Ely 1426–35.
24 ‘Exuat te dominus veterem hominem cum actibus suis et induat te novum hominem qui qui+ secundum deum creatus est in iusticia et sanctitate veritatis’, C.U.L. Mm.III.21. fo 192’.
25 ‘Deus qui Alios Israel in heremi solutidine manna ad pascendum celeste quadragin-ta annis manare fecisti quique vitam heremiticam tarn per filium tuum quadraginta diebus et quadraginta noctibus prophetas et sanctos in heremo degentes tibi in heremo piacere monstrasti concede propicious ut famulus tuus N similem pro modulo suo eligens vitam sic in proposito heremitice discipline mores suos mutet aptet et componat quatinus perseueranter proficiens ad huius vite perfeccionem attingere et ad gaudia perfectorum valeat pervenire,’ Eeles, ‘Two sixteenth century pontificals’ p. 84. This prayer followed the taking of the profession.
26 [Hampshire Record Office,] Register [of William] Waynflete, 2 volumes II fo. 40”.
27 Edited by Eeles, ‘Two sixteenth century pontificals’ pp. 69–90 and reproduced by Clay, Hermits and anchorites pp. 199–202.
28 The description of Thomas Cornysshe’s taking of the profession says that, ‘fecit talem crucem + in cédula papiri in qua huiusmodi forma professiones fuit redacta’, Register of Edmund Lacy III, p. 89; The ordo for the benediction of a hermit given in each of the pontificals under discussion directs that this should be done, for example, ‘Deinde crucis faciat signum in fine professionis’, C.U.L. MM.III.21. fo 102r.
29 Si vero fuerit literatus ita quod sciat dicere horas beate marie virginis cum vii psalmis et letania ac placebo et dirige pro defunctis. Extunc cum qualibet horarum illarum dicat ter pater noster cum ave maria et cum dimidio nocturni psalterii semel in die omnibus aliis pretermissis.’ Eeles, ‘Two sixteenth century pontific als’, p. 89; Oxford Bodleian MS. Rawl C. 549, in addition to a fifteenth century copy of the rule in both Latin and English which is very similar to that being discussed, has in a sixteenth century hand, an insertion between fos 11–12 which reads, ‘He that will take upon hym the ordre of a hermyte being a priste or within holye ordres must observe thei [injunctions] followyng …to say dayly besydes the other ours of oure lady, the vii psalms and dirge and litany.’ He was also expected to say mass daily.
30 ‘Also y shal were none lynnen clothes except youre breche. Also ye shal were no long [ho]sene but of sekenes or laboure…’, Register Waynflete II fo 40’; ‘…lineis uti non licebit exceptis femoralibus pedulis eciam cum sotularibus solum uti debet caligis semper omissis’, Eeles p. 84; Oxford Bodleian MS Rawl.C.459 states that the hermit is not permitted, ‘…to weare or lye in any lynnon except hys prevy clothes’, fo 11r.
31 ‘And these two tymes [Lent and Advent] to be confessed and howseled’, Register Waynflete II fo 40’; Oxford Bodleian Ms Rawl.C.459 adds Whitsun as a third occasion, fo 11r.
32 Ibid
33 Ibid fo 157v.
34 Et quia ociositas inimica est anime et ne diabolus eum inveniat ociosum suis labori manibus temporibus inter mediis circa victualia acquirenda aut vias et pontes firmiter construendas.’ Eeles, ‘Two sixteenth century pontificals’ p. 84.
35 Clay, Hermits and anchorites p. 101–2.
36 Register Waynflete II fos 157™.
37 Pantin, W., The English church in the fourteenth century (Cambridge 1955) p. 235 Google Scholar.
38 Piers the Ploughman p. 191; ‘Ancres and hermytes and monkes and frères peren to apostles thow her parfit lyvynge.’, B Passus 15 lines 409–10 Skeat p. 464.
39 SIC no 14507.
