Hostname: page-component-745bb68f8f-f46jp Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-01-10T07:10:45.623Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

A CLOSER LOOK AT GRIT AND LANGUAGE MINDSET AS PREDICTORS OF FOREIGN LANGUAGE ACHIEVEMENT

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  26 October 2020

Gholam Hassan Khajavy Open the ORCID record for Gholam Hassan Khajavy [Opens in a new window] ,
Peter D. MacIntyre  and
Jamal Hariri
Gholam Hassan Khajavy*
Affiliation:
University of Bojnord
Peter D. MacIntyre
Affiliation:
Cape Breton University
Jamal Hariri
Affiliation:
University of Bojnord
*
*Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Gholam Hassan Khajavy, Department of Foreign Languages, University of Bojnord, 4th km road to Esfarayen, 9453155111, Bojnord, North Khorasan, Iran. E-mail: hkhajavy@ub.ac.ir, hkhajavy@gmail.com
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Learning a second/foreign language (L2) is a long process and L2 learners certainly will encounter setbacks and discouragements during this process. However, their reactions to these failures might be different based on their perceptions of L2 learning ability and their subsequent effort put into L2 learning. Based on this, the present study aimed at exploring two underresearched constructs within the field of applied linguistics, namely grit (continuous effort and interest for long-term goals) and language mindset (individuals’ perceptions of their language learning ability). We had five main aims: to examine (a) the factor structure of grit, (b) the factor structure of language mindset, (c) whether there are gender differences in grit or language mindset, (d) the relationships between language mindset and grittiness, and (e) the roles of grit and language mindset as predictors of L2 achievement. To address these aims, a total number of 1,178 university students who were taking general English courses took part in our study and completed the questionnaires. Results of confirmatory factor analysis indicated that the two-factor structure for both grit and language mindset fit the data better than the single-factor structure. We also tested several structural equation models and found that a growth language mindset weakly, but positively, predicted one component of grit (perseverance of effort, or POE), but not the other (consistency of interest, or COI). A fixed language mindset did not predict POE, but did negatively predict COI. Finally, only growth language mindset was a weak, positive predictor of L2 achievement. At the end, theoretical and pedagogical implications regarding the role of grit and language mindset in L2 learning are presented.

Type
Research Article
Information
Studies in Second Language Acquisition , Volume 43 , Issue 2 , May 2021 , pp. 379 - 402
Check for updates
Copyright
© The Author(s), 2020. Published by Cambridge University Press

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Footnotes

Authors would like to thank Prof. Susan Gass, Dr. Luke Plonsky, and the anonymous reviewers for their insightful comments on the earlier drafts of this paper.

References

Abd-El-Fattah, S. M., & Yates, G. C. R. (2006). Implicit theory of intelligence scale: Testing for factorial invariance and mean structure. Paper presented at the Australian Association for Research in Education Conference, Adelaide, South Australia.Google Scholar
Akos, P., & Kretchmar, J. (2017). Investigating grit at a non-cognitive predictor of college success. The Review of Higher Education, 40, 163–186. https://doi.org/10.1353/rhe.2017.0000.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Arens, A. K., Morin, A. J., & Watermann, R. (2015). Relations between classroom disciplinary problems and student motivation: Achievement as a potential mediator? Learning and Instruction, 39, 184–193. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2015.07.001CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Aronson, J., Fried, C. B., & Good, C. (2002). Reducing the effects of stereotype threat on African American college students by shaping theories of intelligence. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 38, 113–125.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Banse, H., & Palacios, N. (2018). Supportive classrooms for Latino English language learners: Grit, ELL status, and the classroom context. The Journal of Educational Research, 111, 645–656.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bazelais, P., Lemay, D. J., & Doleck, T. (2016). How does grit impact college students’ academic achievement in science? European Journal of Science and Mathematics Education, 4, 33–43.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blackwell, L., Trzesniewski, K., & Dweck, C. S. (2007). Implicit theories of intelligence predict achievement across an adolescent transition: A longitudinal study and an intervention. Child Development, 78, 246–263. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2007.00995.x.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bodill, K., & Roberts, L. D. (2013). Implicit theories of intelligence and academic locus of control as predictors of studying behaviour. Learning and Individual Differences, 27, 163–166. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2013.08.001.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bowman, N. A., Hill, P. L., Denson, N., & Bronkema, R. (2015). Keep on truckin’ or stay the course? Exploring grit dimensions as differential predictors of educational achievement, satisfaction, and intentions. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 6, 639–645. https://doi.org/10.1177/1948550615574300.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bråten, I., & Strømsø, H. I. (2004). Epistemological beliefs and implicit theories of intelligence as predictors of achievement goals. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 29, 371–388. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2003.10.001.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bråten, I., & Strømsø, H. I. (2005). The relationship between epistemological beliefs, implicit theories of intelligence, and self‐regulated learning among Norwegian postsecondary students. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 75, 539–565. https://doi.org/10.1348/000709905X25067.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brown, A. V., Plonsky, L., & Teimouri, Y. (2018). The use of course grades as metrics in L2 research: A systematic review. Foreign Language Annals, 51, 763–778. https://doi.org/10.1111/flan.12370.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Burnette, J. L., O’Boyle, E. H., VanEpps, E. M., Pollack, J. M., & Finkel, E. J. (2013). Mind-sets matter: A meta-analytic review of implicit theories and self-regulation. Psychological Bulletin, 139, 655–701. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0029531.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Butler, R. (2000). Making judgments about ability: The role of implicit theories of ability in moderating inferences from temporal and social comparison information. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 78, 965–978.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Chen, C., Ye, S., & Hangen, E. (2018). Predicting achievement goals in the East and West: The role of grit among American and Chinese university students. Educational Psychology, 820–837. https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410.2018.1458975 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chen, J. A., & Pajares, F. (2010). Implicit theories of ability of Grade 6 science students: Relation to epistemological beliefs and academic motivation and achievement in science. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 35, 75–87. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2009.10.003.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Christensen, R., & Gerald, K. (2014). Comparative measures of grit, tenacity and perseverance. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research, 8, 16–30.Google Scholar
Clark, K. N., & Malecki, C. K. (2019). Academic grit scale: Psychometric properties and associations with achievement and life satisfaction. Journal of School Psychology, 72, 49–66. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2018.12.001.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cohen, J. (1992). A power primer. Psychological Bulletin, 112, 155–159. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.112.1.155.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Credé, M., Tynan, M. C., & Harms, P. D. (2017). Much ado about grit: A meta-analytic synthesis of the grit literature. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 113, 492–511. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspp0000102.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cury, F., Da Fonseca, D., Zahn, I., & Elliot, A. (2008). Implicit theories and IQ test performance: A sequential mediational analysis. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 44, 783–791. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2007.07.003.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cury, F., Elliot, A. J., Da Fonseca, D., & Moller, A. C. (2006). The social cognitive model of achievement motivation and the 2 × 2 achievement goal framework. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 90, 666–679. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.90.4.666.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dai, T., & Cromley, J. G. (2014). Changes in implicit theories of ability in biology and dropout from STEM majors: A latent growth curve approach. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 39, 233–247. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2014.06.003.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Diseth, Å., Meland, E., & Breidablik, H. J. (2014). Self-beliefs among students: Grade level and gender differences in self-esteem, self-efficacy and implicit theories of intelligence. Learning and Individual Differences, 35, 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2014.06.003.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Duckworth, A. L., Peterson, C., Matthews, M. D., & Kelly, D. R. (2007). Grit: Perseverance and passion for long-term goals. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 92, 1087. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.92.6.1087.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Duckworth, A. L., & Quinn, P. D. (2009). Development and validation of the short grit scale (Grit-S). Journal of Personality Assessment, 91, 166–174. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223890802634290.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dweck, C. S. (1999). Self-theories: Their role in motivation, personality, and development. Taylor & Francis.Google Scholar
Dweck, C. S., & Leggett, E. L. (1988). A social-cognitive approach to motivation and personality. Psychological Review, 95, 256–273. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.95.2.256.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dweck, C. S., Walton, G. M., & Cohen, G. L. (2014). Academic tenacity: Mindsets and skills that promote long-term learning. Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation. https://ed.stanford.edu/sites/default/files/manual/dweck-walton-cohen-2014.pdf Google Scholar
Ebadi, S., Weisi, H., & Khaksar, Z. (2018). Developing an Iranian ELT context-specific grit instrument. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research, 47, 975–997. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10936-018-9571-x.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Eskreis-Winkler, L., Duckworth, A. L., Shulman, E. P., & Beal, S. (2014). The grit effect: Predicting retention in the military, the workplace, school and marriage. Frontiers in Psychology, 5, 1–12. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00036.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Feng, L., & Papi, M. (2020). Persistence in language learning: The role of grit and future self-guides. Learning and Individual Differences, 81, 10194. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2020.101904 CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fosnacht, K., McCormick, A. C., & Lerma, R. (2018). First-year students’ time use in college: A latent profile analysis. Research in Higher Education, 1–21. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11162-018-9497-z CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Geldhof, G. J., Preacher, K. J., & Zyphur, M. J. (2014). Reliability estimation in a multilevel confirmatory factor analysis framework. Psychological Methods, 19, 72–91. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0032138.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hiver, P., & Al‐Hoorie, A. H. (2020). Reexamining the role of vision in second language motivation: A preregistered conceptual replication of You, Dörnyei, and Csizér (2016). Language Learning, 70, 48–72. https://doi.org/10.1111/lang.12371.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hodge, B., Wright, B., & Bennett, P. (2018). The role of grit in determining engagement and academic outcomes for university students. Research in Higher Education, 59, 448–460. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11162-017-9474-y.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hox, J. (2010). Multilevel analysis: Techniques and applications. Erlbaum.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hu, L. T., & Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling, 6, 1–55. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705519909540118.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ingebrigtsen, M. (2018). How to measure a growth mindset: A validation study of the implicit theories of intelligence scale and a novel Norwegian measure (Unpublished master’s thesis). UiT Norges Arktiske Universitet.Google Scholar
Ivcevic, Z., & Brackett, M. (2014). Predicting school success: Comparing conscientiousness, grit, and emotion regulation ability. Journal of Research in Personality, 52, 29–36. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2014.06.005.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Karlen, Y., Suter, F., Hirt, C., & Merki, K. M. (2019). The role of implicit theories in students’ grit, achievement goals, intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, and achievement in the context a long-term challenging task. Learning and Individual Differences, 74, 101757. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2019.101757.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Khajavy, G. H., MacIntyre, P. D., & Barabadi, E. (2018). Role of the emotions and classroom environment in willingness to communicate: Applying doubly latent multilevel analysis in second language acquisition research. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 40, 605–624. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0272263117000304.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kramer, B., McLean, S., & Shepherd Martin, E. (2018). Student grittiness: A pilot study investigating scholarly persistence in EFL classrooms. http://irlib.wilmina.ac.jp/dspace/handle/10775/3498.Google Scholar
Lan, X., Ma, C., & Radin, R. (2019). Parental autonomy support and psychological well-being in Tibetan and Han emerging adults: A serial multiple mediation model. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, 621. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00621.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lee, J. S. (2020). The role of grit and classroom enjoyment in EFL learners’ willingness to communicate. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1080/01434632.2020.1746319.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lou, N. M., & Noels, K. A. (2016). Changing language mindsets: Implications for goal orientations and responses to failure in and outside the second language classroom. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 46, 22–33. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2016.03.004.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lou, N. M., & Noels, K. A. (2017a). Measuring language mindsets and modeling their relations with goal orientations and emotional and behavioral responses in failure situations. The Modern Language Journal, 101, 214–243. https://doi.org/10.1111/modl.12380.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lou, N. M., & Noels, K. A. (2017b). Sensitivity to language-based rejection in intercultural communication: The role of language mindsets and implications for migrants’ cross-cultural adaptation. Applied Linguistics, 40, 478–505. https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/amx047.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Luthans, K. W., Luthans, B. C., & Chaffin, T. D. (2018). Refining grit in academic performance: The mediational role of psychological capital. Journal of Management Education, 43, 35–61. https://doi.org/10.1177/1052562918804282.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lüftenegger, M., & Chen, J. A. (2017). Conceptual issues and assessment of implicit theories. Zeitschrift für Psychologie, 225, 99–106. https://doi.org/10.1027/2151-2604/a000286.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Marsh, H. W., Hau, K. T., & Wen, Z. (2004). In search of golden rules: Comment on hypothesis-testing approaches to setting cutoff values for fit indexes and dangers in overgeneralizing Hu and Bentler’s (1999) findings. Structural Equation Modeling, 11, 320–341. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15328007sem1103_2.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mercer, S., & Ryan, S. (2009). A mindset for EFL: Learners’ beliefs about the role of natural talent. ELT Journal, 64, 436–444. https://doi.org/10.1093/elt/ccp083.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Molden, D. C., & Dweck, C. S. (2006). Finding “meaning” in psychology: A lay theories approach to self-regulation, social perception, and social development. American Psychologist, 61, 192. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.61.3.192.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mouratidis, A., Michou, A., & Vassiou, A. (2017). Adolescents’ autonomous functioning and implicit theories of ability as predictors of their school achievement and week-to-week study regulation and well-being. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 48, 56–66. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2016.09.001.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Muenks, K., Wigfield, A., Yang, J. S., & O’Neal, C. R. (2017). How true is grit? Assessing its relations to high school and college students’ personality characteristics, self-regulation, engagement, and achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology, 109, 599–520. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000153.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Myers, C. A., Wang, C., Black, J. M., Bugescu, N., & Hoeft, F. (2016). The matter of motivation: Striatal resting-state connectivity is dissociable between grit and growth mindset. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 11, 1521–1527. https://doi.org/10.1093/scan/nsw065.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Park, D., Yu, A., Baelen, R. N., Tsukayama, E., & Duckworth, A. L. (2018). Fostering grit: Perceived school goal-structure predicts growth in grit and grades. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 55, 120–128. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2018.09.007.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Piña‐Watson, B., López, B., Ojeda, L., & Rodriguez, K. M. (2015). Cultural and cognitive predictors of academic motivation among Mexican American adolescents: Caution against discounting the impact of cultural processes. Journal of Multicultural Counseling and Development, 43, 109–121. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.2161-1912.2015.00068.x.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Plonsky, L., & Oswald, F. L. (2014). How big is “big”? Interpreting effect sizes in L2 research. Language Learning, 64, 878–912. https://doi.org/10.1111/lang.12079.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rattan, A., Savani, K., Chugh, D., & Dweck, C. S. (2015). Leveraging mindsets to promote academic achievement: Policy recommendations. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 10, 721–726. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691615599383.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ryan, S., & Mercer, S. (2012a). Implicit theories: Language learning mindsets. In Mercer, S., Ryan, S., & Williams, M. (Eds.), Psychology for language learning: Insights from research, theory and practice (pp. 74–89). Palgrave Macmillan.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ryan, S., & Mercer, S. (2012b). Language learning mindsets across cultural settings: English learners in Austria and Japan. OnCUE Journal, 6, 6–22.Google Scholar
Schmidt, F. T., Fleckenstein, J., Retelsdorf, J., Eskreis-Winkler, L., & Möller, J. (2019). Measuring grit: A German validation and a domain-specific approach to grit. European Journal of Psychological Assessment, 35, 436–447. https://doi.org/10.1027/1015-5759/a000407.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sisk, V. F., Burgoyne, A. P., Sun, J., Butler, J. L., & Macnamara, B. N. (2018). To what extent and under which circumstances are growth mind-sets important to academic achievement? Two meta-analyses. Psychological Science, 29, 549–571. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797617739704.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Spinath, B., Spinath, F. M., Riemann, R., & Angleitner, A. (2003). Implicit theories about personality and intelligence and their relationship to actual personality and intelligence. Personality and Individual Differences, 35, 939–951. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0191-8869(02)00310-0.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Steinmayr, R., Weidinger, A. F., & Wigfield, A. (2018). Does students’ grit predict their school achievement above and beyond their personality, motivation, and engagement? Contemporary Educational Psychology, 53, 106–122. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2018.02.004.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sudina, E., & Plonsky, L. (2020). Language learning grit, achievement, and anxiety among L2 and L3 learners in Russia. ITL – International Journal of Applied Linguistics. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1075/itl.20001.sud.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Tang, X., Wang, M. T., Guo, J., & Salmela-Aro, K. (2019). Building grit: The longitudinal pathways between mindset, commitment, grit, and academic outcomes. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 48, 850–863. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-019-00998-0.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tarbetsky, A. L., Collie, R. J., & Martin, A. J. (2016). The role of implicit theories of intelligence and ability in predicting achievement for Indigenous (Aboriginal) Australian students. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 47, 61–71. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2016.01.002.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Teimouri, Y., Plonsky, L., & Tabandeh, F. (2020). L2 Grit: Passion and perseverance for second-language learning. Language Teaching Research. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1177/1362168820921895.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
U.S. Department of Education (2013). Promoting grit, tenacity, and perseverance: Critical factors for success in the 21st century. Office of Educational Technology. http://pgbovine.net/OET-Draft-Grit-Report-2-17-13.pdf/.Google Scholar
Usher, E. L., Li, C. R., Butz, A. R., & Rojas, J. P. (2019). Perseverant grit and self-efficacy: Are both essential for children’s academic success? Journal of Educational Psychology, 111, 877–902. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000324.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Waller, L., & Papi, M. (2017). Motivation and feedback: How implicit theories of intelligence predict L2 writers’ motivation and feedback orientation. Journal of Second Language Writing, 35, 54–65. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jslw.2017.01.004.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wei, H., Gao, K., & Wang, W. (2019). Understanding the relationship between grit and foreign language performance among middle school students: The roles of foreign language enjoyment and classroom environment. Frontiers in Psychology, 10. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01508.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
West, M. R., Kraft, M. A., Finn, A. S., Martin, R. E., Duckworth, A. L., Gabrieli, C. F., & Gabrieli, J. D. (2016). Promise and paradox: Measuring students’ non-cognitive skills and the impact of schooling. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 38, 148–170. https://doi.org/10.3102/0162373715597298.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wigfield, A. (1997). Reading motivation: A domain-specific approach to motivation. Educational Psychologist, 32, 59–68. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15326985ep3202_1.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wolters, C. A., & Hussain, M. (2015). Investigating grit and its relations with college students’ self-regulated learning and academic achievement. Metacognition and Learning, 10, 293–311. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11409-014-9128-9.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yeager, D. S., Trzesniewski, K. H., & Dweck, C. S. (2013). An implicit theories of personality intervention reduces adolescent aggression in response to victimization and exclusion. Child Development, 84, 970–988. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12003.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Supplementary material: File

Khajavy et al. supplementary material

Khajavy et al. supplementary material

Download Khajavy et al. supplementary material(File)
File 33.6 KB