Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-t7fkt Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-22T14:05:10.578Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Schizophrenia as a Recent Disease

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  02 January 2018

Edward Hare*
Affiliation:
The Bethlem Royal and Maudsley Hospitals
*
47 Alleyn Road, London SE21 8AD

Abstract

The hypothesis that schizophrenia is a recent disease can explain why descriptions of schizophrenia-like disorders were rare before 1800, why the prevalence of insanity in the Western world increased during the 19th but remained low in the non-Western world until the 20th century, and why schizophrenia has become milder in the West during recent decades. It also explains why schizophrenia has ‘persisted’ in spite of its associated low fertility. The evidence for the hypothesis is somewhat frail, but perhaps not more so than that for alternative hypotheses.

Type
Research Article
Copyright
Copyright © Royal College of Psychiatrists, 1988 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Ackerknecht, E. H. (1959) A Short History of Psychiatry (trans. Wolff, S., pp. 56). London: Hafner.Google Scholar
Adami, J. G. (1918) Medical Contributions to the Study of Evolution, p. 42. London: Duckworth.Google Scholar
Altschule, M. (1976) Historical perspective – evolution of the concept of schizophrenia In The Biology of the Schizophrenic Process (eds Wolff, S. & Berle, B. B.), ch. 1. New York: Plenum Press.Google Scholar
Bark, N. M. (1985) Did Shakespeare know schizophrenia? The case of Poor Mad Tom in King Lear. British Journal of Psychiatry, 146, 436438.Google Scholar
Beighton, P., Solomon, L., Valkenburg, H. A. (1975) Rheumatoid arthritis in a rural South African negro population. Annals of Rheumatic Diseases, 34, 136141.Google Scholar
Bleuler, M. (1972) Die Schizophrenen Geistesstörungen im Lichte langjähriger Kranken – und Familiengeschichten. Translated by Clemens, S. M. (1978) as The Schizophrenic Disorders: Long-term Patient and Family Studies, ch. 8. London: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Board of Control (1914) First Annual Report for the Year 1914. London: HMSO.Google Scholar
Bourgeois, M., Etchepare, J. J., Degeilh, B., Rager, P. & Peyre, F. (1987) L'évolution des Schizophrénies. Problèmes méthodologiques et revue de la littérature. Annales médico-psycholigique, 145, 608620.Google Scholar
Buck, C., Hobbs, G. E., Simpson, H. & Wanklin, J. M. (1975) Fertility of the sibs of psychiatric patients. British Journal of Psychiatry, 127, 235239.Google Scholar
Buck, C., Simpson, H. & Wanklin, J. M. (1977) Survival of nieces and nephews of schizophrenic patients. British Journal of Psychiatry, 130, 506508.Google Scholar
Clouston, T. S. (1888) Presidential address. Journal of Mental Science, 34, 325348.Google Scholar
Cooper, J. E. & Sartorius, N. (1977) Cultural and temporal variations in schizophrenia: a speculation on the importance of industrialisation. British Journal of Psychiatry, 130, 5055.Google Scholar
Cox, J. M. (1806) Practical Observations on Insanity (2nd edn), pp. 8, 14. London: Baldwin and Murray.Google Scholar
Cranefield, P. F. (1961) A seventeenth century view of mental deficiency and schizophrenia: Thomas Willis on ‘Stupidity and Foolishness’. Bulletin of the History of Medicine, 35, 291316.Google Scholar
Crow, T. J. (1987) Two syndromes of schizophrenia as one pole of the continuum of psychosis: A concept of the nature of the pathogen and its genomic locus In Handbook of Schizophrenia, vol. 2. Neurochemistry and Neuropharmacology of Schizophrenia, ch. 2 (eds Henn, F. A. & DeLisi, I. E.), ch. 2. Amsterdam: Elsevier.Google Scholar
Cullen, W. (1772) Synopsis Nosologiae Methodica. English translation (1800) Nosology; or, a Systematic Arrangement (etc.). Edinburgh: Creech.Google Scholar
Denham, A. M. (1987) The viral aetiology of arthritis. Reports on Rheumatic Diseases (Series 2): Topical Reviews 7. London: The Arthritis and Rheumatism Council.Google Scholar
Drapes, T. (1894) On the alleged increase of insanity in Ireland. Journal of Mental Science, 40, 519561.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Eagles, J. M., Hunter, D. & McCance, C. (1988) Decline in diagnosis of schizophrenia among first contacts with psychiatric services in north-east Scotland, 1969–1984. British Journal of Psychiatry, 152, 793–198.Google Scholar
Eaton, W. W., Day, R. & Kramer, M. (1988) The use of epidemiology for risk factor research in schizophrenia: an overview and methodologic critique In Handbook of Schizophrenia, vol. 3. Nosology, Epidemiology and Genetics of Schizophrenia (eds Tsuang, M. T. & Simpson, J. C.), ch. 9. Amsterdam: Elsevier.Google Scholar
Eisenberg, L. (1968) The interaction of biological and experimental factors in schizophrenia In The Transmission of Schizophrenia (eds Rosenthal, D. & Kety, S. S.), pp. 403409. London: Pergamon Press.Google Scholar
Ellard, J. (1987) Did schizophrenia exist before the eighteenth century? Australia and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 21, 306314.Google Scholar
Evenson, H. (1936) Recherches fakes après la sortie sur environ 800 cas de démence précoce. Sixth Congress of Scandinavian Psychiatrists, 799816. Copenhagen. Quoted by Ødegård (1967).Google Scholar
Fortes, M. & Mayer, D. Y. (1969) Psychosis and social change among the Tallensi of Northern Ghana In Psychiatry in a Changing Society (eds Foulkes, S. H. & Prince, G. S.), ch. 3. London: Tavistock.Google Scholar
Grinker, R. R. (1973) Changing styles in psychoses and borderline states. American Journal of Psychiatry, 130, 151155.Google Scholar
Hare, E. H. (1959) The origin and spread of dementia paralytica. Journal of Mental Science, 105, 594626.Google Scholar
Hare, E. H. (1983a) Epidemiological evidence for a viral factor in the aetiology of the functional psychoses In Research on the Viral Hypothesis of Mental Disorders (ed. Morozov, P. V.), pp. 5275. Karger.Google Scholar
Hare, E. H. (1983b) Was insanity on the increase? British Journal of Psychiatry, 142, 439455.Google Scholar
Hare, E. H. (1988a) Schizophrenia before 1800? The case of the Revd George Trosse. Psychological Medicine, 18, 279285.Google Scholar
Hare, E. H. (1988b) Temporal factors and trends, including birth seasonality and the viral hypothesis In Handbook of Schizophrenia, volume 3. Nosology, Epidemiology and Genetics of Schizophrenia (eds Tsuang, M. T. & Simpson, J. C.), ch. 15. Amsterdam: Elsevier.Google Scholar
Harper, A. (1789) A Treatise on the Real Cause and Cure of Insanity, p. 23. London: Stalker.Google Scholar
Hart, F. D. (1979) Arthritis as a world-wide problem. Current Medical Research and Opinion, 6 (Suppl. 2), 38.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Haslam, J. (1798) Observations on Insanity. London: Rivington.Google Scholar
Haslam, J. (1809) Observations on Melancholy and Madness. London: Callow.Google Scholar
Haverkamp, F., Propping, P. & Hilger, T. (1982) Is there an increase of reproductive rates in schizophrenics? Archives fur Psychiatrie und Nervenkrankheiten, 232, 439450.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Heston, L. L. (1966) Psychiatric disorders in foster home reared children of schizophrenic mothers. British Journal of Psychiatry, 112, 819825.Google Scholar
Hogarty, G. E. (1977) Treatment and the course of schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 3, 587599.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Hood, W. C. (1862) Statistics of Insanity, p. 52. London: Batten.Google Scholar
Jablensky, A. (1986) Epidemiology of schizophrenia: a European perspective. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 12, 5273.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jacobowsky, B. (1965) General paresis and civilisation. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 41, 267273.Google Scholar
Jeste, D. V., Carman, R., Lohr, J. B. & Wyatt, R. J. (1985) Did schizophrenia exist before the eighteenth century? Comprehensive Psychiatry, 26, 493503.Google Scholar
Joyce, P. R. (1987) Changing trends in first admissions and re-admissions of mania and schizophrenia in New Zealand 1974–1984. Australia and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 21, 8286.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Karlsson, J. L. (1984) Creative intelligence in relatives of mental patients. Hereditas, 100, 8386.Google Scholar
Kay, D. W. K. & Lindelius, R. (1970) In A Study of Schizophrenia: a Clinical, Prognostic and Family Investigation (ed. Lindelius, R.). Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica (suppl. 216). Copenhagen: Munkgaard.Google Scholar
Kidd, K. K. (1975) On the possible magnitudes of selective forces maintaining schizophrenia In Genetic Research in Psychiatry (eds Fieve, R. R., Rosenthal, D. & Brill, H.), ch. 10. London: Johns Hopkins University Press.Google Scholar
Kraepelin, E. (1913) Psychiatrie (8th edn). Translated by Barclay, R. M. (1919) from vols 3, part 2 as Dementia Praecox and Paraphrenia. Edinburgh: Livingstone.Google Scholar
Kraepelin, E. (1926) The problems presented by general paresis. Journal of Nervous and Mental Diseases, 63, 209218.Google Scholar
Kraepelin, E. (1927) Psychiatrie (9th edn), vol. II, ch. VI. Leipzig: Barth.Google Scholar
Kuriansky, J. B., Deming, E. & Gurland, B. J. (1974) On trends in the diagnosis of schizophrenia. American Journal of Psychiatry, 131, 402408.Google Scholar
Kuttner, R. E. & Lorincz, A. B. (1966) Schizophrenia and evolution. Eugenics Quarterly, 13, 355356.Google Scholar
Lang, T. (1931) Zur Frage: Geisteskrankheit und Geburtsmonat. Archives der Rassen-biologie, 25, 4257.Google Scholar
Lewis, N. D. C. (1966) History of the nosology and the evolution of the concepts of schizophrenia In Psychopathology of Schizophrenia (eds Hoch, P. H. & Zubin, J.), p. 1. London: Grune and Stratton.Google Scholar
Linnaeus, C. (1763) Genera Moroborum. Uppsala. English trans in Cullen (1800).Google Scholar
Loudon, I. (1987) Puerperal fever, streptococcus and the sulphonamides, 1911–1945. British Medical Journal, 295, 485490.Google Scholar
MacCabe, F. (1869) On the alleged increase of insanity. Journal of Mental Science, 16, 363366.Google Scholar
MacDonald, M. (1981) Mystical Bedlam. Madness, Anxiety and Healing in Seventeenth Century England, p. 148. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Maudsley, H. (1868) Illustrations of a variety of insanity. Journal of Mental Science, 14, 149162.Google Scholar
Maudsley, H. (1908) Hereditary Variation and Genius, p. 199. London: Bale.Google Scholar
McEvedy, C. (1988) The bubonic plague. Scientific American, 258, 7479.Google Scholar
McKeown, T. (1979) The Role of Medicine: Dream, Mirage or Nemesis?, pp. 51, 92. Oxford: Blackwell.Google Scholar
McNeil, T. F. (1988) Obstetric factors and perinatal injuries In Handbook of Schizophrenia, vol. 3. Nosology, Epidemiology and Genetics of Schizophrenia (eds Tsuang, M. T. & Simpson, J. C.), ch. 14. Amsterdam: Elsevier.Google Scholar
Murray, R. M., Reveley, A. M. & Lewis, S. W. (1988) Family history, obstetric complications and cerebral abnormality in schizophrenia In Handbook of Schizophrenia, vol. 3. Nosology, Epidemiology and Genetics of Schizophrenia (eds Tusang, M. T. & Simpson, J. C.), ch. 24. Amsterdam: Elsevier.Google Scholar
Ødegård, Ø. (1967) Changes in the prognosis of functional psychoses since the days of Kraepelin. British Journal of Psychiatry, 113, 813822.Google Scholar
Pinel, P. (1801) Traité médico-philosophique sur l'aliénation mentale. Translated by Davis, D. D. (1827) as A Treatise on Insanity. Sheffield: Cadell and Davis (facsimile edition by Hafner, New York, 1962).Google Scholar
Pinel, P. (1809) Traité médico-philosophique sur l'aliénation mentale. (2nd edn). Paris: J. A. Brosson.Google Scholar
Prichard, J. C. (1835) A Treatise on Insanity and other Disorders Affecting the Mind. London: Sherwood.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rogers, J., Waldron, T., Dieppe, P., Watt, I. (1987) Arthropathies in paleopathology: the basis of classification according to most probable cause. Journal of Archaeological Science, 14, 179193.Google Scholar
Rlleston, H. (1927) Changes in the clinical aspects of disease. British Medical Journal, i, 8799.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Romano, J. (1977) On the nature of schizophrenia: changes in the observer as well as the observed 1937–1977). Schizophrenia Bulletin, 3, 532559.Google Scholar
Rosenthal, D. (1970) Genetic Theory and Abnormal Behaviour, p. 181. New York: McGraw–Hill.Google Scholar
Scott, J. T. (ed.) (1986) Copeman's Textbook of Rheumatic Diseases (6th edn), p. 12. London: Churchill Livingstone.Google Scholar
Scull, A. T. (1979) Museums of Madness. London: Lane.Google Scholar
Scull, A. T. (1984) Was insanity increasing? A response to Edward Hare. British Journal of Psychiatry, 144, 432436.Google Scholar
Short, C. L. (1974) The antiquity of rheumatoid arthritis. Arthritis and Rheumatism, 17, 193205.Google Scholar
Skae, D. (1863) A rational and practical classification of insanity. Journal of Mental Science, 9, 309319.Google Scholar
Skliar, N. & Starikova, K. (1929) Zur Vergleicherden Psychiatrie. Archiv für Psychiatrie und Nervenkrankheiten, 88, 554585.Google Scholar
Slater, E. & Meyer, A. (1959) Contributions to the pathology of the musicians. 1. Robert Schumann. Confinia Psychiatrica, 2, 6594.Google Scholar
Solomon, L., Robin, G., Valkenberg, H. A. (1975) Rheumatoid arthritis in an urban South African negro population. Annals of Rheumatic Diseases, 34, 128135.Google Scholar
Spector, T. D., Silman, A. J. (1987) Does the negative association between rheumatoid arthritis and schizophrenia provide clues to the aetiology of rheumatoid arthritis? British Journal of Rheumatology, 26, 307310.Google Scholar
Stevens, B. (1969) Marriage and Fertility of Women Suffering from Schizophrenia and Affective Disorders. Maudsley Monograph No. 19. London: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Strömgren, E. (1982) Development of concepts of schizophrenia In Handbook of Psychiatry 3: Psychoses of Uncertain Aetiology (eds Wing, J. K. & Wind, L.), p. 17. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Sydenham, T. (1676) Observationes Medicae. Translated by Swan, J. (1742) as The Entire Works of Thomas Syndeham. London: Cave.Google Scholar
Torrey, E. F. (1980) Schizophrenia and Civilization, ch. 2. London: Aronson.Google Scholar
Torrey, E. F. (1987) Prevalence studies in schizophrenia. British Journal of Psychiatry, 150, 598608.Google Scholar
Tuke, D. H. (1878) Insanity in Ancient and Modern Life, pp. 1516. London: MacMillan.Google Scholar
Tuke, D. H. (1882) Dictionary of Psychological Medicine. London: Churchill.Google Scholar
Tuke, H. (1873) Presidential address. Journal of Mental Science, 19, 327340 and 479–485.Google Scholar
Vogel, H. P. (1979) Fertility and sibship size in a psychiatric patient population. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 60, 483503.Google Scholar
Westermeyer, J. F. & Harrow, M. (1988) Course and outcome in schizophrenia In Handbook of Schizophrenia, vol. 3. Nosology, Epidemiology and Genetics of Schizophrenia (eds Tsuang, M. T. & Simpson, J. C.), ch. 10. Amsterdam: Elsevier.Google Scholar
Willis, T. (1672) De Anima Brutorum. Translated by Pordage, S. (1684) as Dr. Willis' Practice of Physick. Part II. Concerning the Souls of the Brutes. Oxford: Davis.Google Scholar
Wing, J. K. (1987) Has the outcome of schizophrenia changed? British Medical Bulletin, 43, 741753.Google Scholar
Submit a response

eLetters

No eLetters have been published for this article.