¹ For a wide-ranging discussion of related themes, see Frugoni, C., A Distant City: Images of Urban Experience in the Medieval World, trans. McCuaig, W. (Princeton, 1991)Google Scholar, an updated version of Frugoni, C., Una lontana città: sentimenti e immagini nel Medioevo (Turin, 1983)Google Scholar; and also Q. Skinner, ‘Ambrogio Lorenzetti: The Artist as Political Philosopher’, Proceedings of the British Academy, 72 (1986), 1–56, and idem, ‘Ambrogio Lorenzetti's Buon Governo Frescoes: Two Old Questions, Two New Answers’, Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes, 62 (1999), 1–28.

² For London in this period, see C. N. L. Brooke and G. Keir, London 800–1216: The Shaping of a City (1975), and D. Keene, ‘London from the Post-Roman Period to 1300’, in The Cambridge Urban History of Britain, i: 600–1540, ed. D. M. Palliser (Cambridge, 2000), 187–216. For recent accounts of family and political interests, see D. Keene, ‘fitz Ailwin, Henry’, ‘fitz Osbert’, in Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (Oxford, 2004); idem, ‘English Urban Guilds, c. 900–1300: The Purposes and Politics of Association’, in Guilds and Association in Europe, 900–1900, ed. I. A. Gadd and P. Wallis (2006), 3–26.

³ See below, n. 36.

⁴ For a recent survey, see D. Keene, ‘Towns and the Growth of Trade’, in The New Cambridge Medieval History, iv: c. 1024–c. 1198, Part I, ed. D. Luscombe and J. Riley-Smith (Cambridge, 2004), 47–85, 758–76.

⁵ Struve, T., ‘The Importance of the Organism in the Political Theory of John of Salisbury’, in The World of John of Salisbury, ed. Wilks, M. (Oxford, 1984), 303–17Google Scholar; Gregory, T., ‘The Platonic Inheritance’, in A History of Twelfth-Century Western Philosophy, ed. Dronke, P. (Cambridge, 1988), 54–80, esp. 62CrossRefGoogle Scholar; John of Salisbury, Policraticus: Of the Frivolities of Courtiers and the Footprints of Philosophers, ed. C. J. Nederman (Cambridge, 1990), 81, 125.

⁶ Mirabilia Urbis Romae, ed. F. M. Nichols (1889), xi–xii, 86–7; Lanzillotta, M. Accame, Contributi sui Mirabilia Urbis Romae (Genoa, 1996)Google Scholar, preface.

⁷ Hyde, J. K., ‘Medieval Descriptions of Cities’, Bulletin of the John Rylands Library, 48 (1965–6), 308–40CrossRefGoogle Scholar; J. Scattergood, ‘Misrepresenting the City: Genre, Intertextuality and William fitz Stephen's Description of London (c. 1173)’, in London and Europe in the Later Middle Ages, ed. J. Boffey and P. King (1996), 1–34; Ganim, J. M., ‘The Experience of Modernity in Late Medieval Literature: Urbanism, Experience and Rhetoric in Some Early Descriptions of London’, in The Performance of Middle English Culture: Essays on Chaucer and the Drama in Honour of Martin Stevens, ed. Paxson, J. J., Clopper, L. M. and Tomasch, S. (Cambridge, 1998), 77–96Google Scholar; K. Arnold, ‘Stadtelob und Stadtbeschreibung im späteren Mittelalter und der Früen Neuzeit’, in Städtische Geschichtsschreibung im Spätmittelalter und in der frühen Neuzeit, ed. P. Johanek (Städteforschung: Veröfentlichungen des Instituts für vergleichende Städtegeschichte in Münster, Reihe A, Bd. 47; Cologne, Weimar, and Vienna, 2000), 247–68.

⁸ de Certeau, M., L'invention du quotidien, I: Arts de faire, ed. Giard, L. (Paris, 1990), 139–42Google Scholar.

⁹ Chrétien de Troyes: Le Conte du Graal ou le Roman du Perceval, ed. C. Méla (Paris, 1990), lines 5680–710, pp. 406–8; translation by the author.

¹⁰ Especially in the Parisian Dictionarius of Jean de Garlande and Jean de Jandun's later description of Les Halles, discussed in D. Keene, ‘Cultures de production, de distribution et de consommation en milieu urbain en Angleterre, 1100–1350’, Histoire Urbaine, 16 (août 2006), 17–38.

¹¹ Chapin, E., Les villes de foires de Champagne des origines au début du XIVe siècle (Paris, 1937)Google Scholar; Winchester in the Early Middle Ages: An Edition and Discussion of the Winton Domesday, ed. M. Biddle (Oxford, 1976); Holmes, U. T. and Klenke, M. A., Chrétien, Troyes, and the Grail (Chapel Hill 1959), 23–4Google Scholar.

¹² Unless otherwise stated, references to Geoffrey's ‘History’ are given to the chapter and section numbers assigned in the ‘Vulgate’ version edited from the Bern MS in vol. i of The Historia Regum Britannie of Geoffrey of Monmouth, ed. N. Wright and J. C. Crick (5 vols., Cambridge, 1985–91), and to page numbers in The History of the Kings of Britain, trans. L. Thorpe (Harmondsworth, 1966).

¹³ Daniel, C., Les prophéties de Merlin et la culture politique (xii^e–xiii^e siècle) (Turnhout, 2006), 16–17CrossRefGoogle Scholar; for the impact of Geoffrey's work on ideas of English and British history, see Crick, J. C., ‘Geoffrey of Monmouth: Prophecy and History’, Journal of Medieval History, 18 (1992), 357–71CrossRefGoogle Scholar, and eadem, ‘British Past and Welsh Future’, Celtica, 23 (1999), 60–75.

¹⁴ Otter, M., Inventiones: Fiction and Referentiality in Twelfth-Century English Historical Writing (Chapel Hill and London, 1996), 69–80Google Scholar; Clark, J., ‘Trinovantum – The Evolution of a Legend’, Journal of Medieval History, 7 (1981), 135–51CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

¹⁵ Historia Regum, ed. Wright and Crick, 44, 53; History, trans. Thorpe, 100, 106.

¹⁶ Historia Regum, ed. Wright and Crick, 116(37); History, trans. Thorpe, 178; The History of the King's Works, ii, ed. H. M. Colvin (1963), 708–9.

¹⁷ Clark, J., ‘Cadwallo, King of the Britons, the Bronze Horseman of London’, in Collectanea Londiniensia: Studies in London Archaeology and History Presented to Ralph Merrifield, ed. Bird, J., Chapman, H. and Clark, J. (London and Middlesex Archaeological Society, Special Paper 2, 1978), 194–9Google Scholar; Historia Regum, ed. Wright and Crick, 201; History, trans. Thorpe, 280.

¹⁸ Mirabilia, ed. Nichols, 42.

¹⁹ Historia Regum, ed. Wright and Crick, 112(4), 115(19)(24), 201; History, trans. Thorpe, 172, 175–6, 280.

²⁰ Radulfi de Diceto Decani Lundoniensis Opera Historica, ed. W. Stubbs (2 vols., Rolls Series, 1876), i, 10–15, 36, ii, 222–32; Gilbert Foliot and his Letters, ed. A. Morey and C. N. L. Brooke (Cambridge, 1965), 151–62; The Letters of John of Salisbury, ii: The Later Letters (1163–1180), ed. W. J. Millor and C. N. L. Brooke (Oxford, 1979), 666–7.

²¹ Historia Regum, ed. Wright and Crick, 21; History, trans. Thorpe, 64–5; Early Charters of the Cathedral Church of St Paul, London, ed. M. Gibbs (Camden Society, 3rd series 58, 1939), nos. 79–80. By the fifteenth century the house, then in the possession of the cathedral, was known as ‘Diana's Chamber’: H. C. Maxwell Lyte, ‘Report on the Manuscripts of the Dean and Chapter of St Paul's’ (Appendix to the Historical Manuscripts Commission, Ninth Report, 1883), 1–72 at 4–5.

²² For Becket's life, see Barlow, F., Thomas Becket (London 1986)Google Scholar. For texts of the description of London: Materials for the History of Thomas Becket, ed. J. C. Robertson and J. B. Sheppard (7 vols., Rolls Series, 1875–85), iii, 2–13; the text was incorporated in J. Stow, A Survey of London (1598); in his edition of the 1603 edition of Stow's Survey, Kingsford included a new edition of the description which notes significant textual variations: J. Stow, A Survey of London, ed. C. L. Kingsford (Oxford, 1908; reprinted 1971), 219–29, 387–8. Translations and commentaries include: F. M. Stenton, Norman London, an Essay (1934), including a translation by H. E. Butler; Butler's translation is reproduced in Norman London by William fitz Stephen, ed. D. Logan (New York, 1990).

²³ Scattergood, ‘Misrepresenting the City’, provides a valuable critique from these points of view; see also Ganim, ‘The Experience of Modernity’, and C. A. M. Clarke, Literary Landscapes and the Idea of England, 700–1400 (Cambridge, 2006), 90–8.

²⁴ Gransden, A., ‘Realistic Observation in Twelfth-Century England’, Speculum, 47 (1972), 29–51CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Henry, Archdeacon of Huntingdon, Historia Anglorum, the History of the English People, ed. D. Greenway (Oxford, 1996), esp. lvii–lviii; Gillingham, J., The English in the Twelfth Century: Imperialism, National Identity and Political Values (Woodbridge, 2000)Google Scholar; cf. Green, J., ‘King Henry I and Northern England’, Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, 6th series, 17 (2007), 35–55CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

²⁵ For the scale of the western fortresses, or fortress, see St Paul's: The Cathedral Church of London, 604–2004, ed. D. Keene, A. Burns and A. Saint (New Haven and London, 2004), 18 and Fig. 9.

²⁶ He addressed the senatoribus inclitis, civibus honoratis et omnibus communie Londoniensis: Reading Abbey Cartularies, ed. B. R. Kemp (2 vols., Camden 4th series, 31 and 33, 1986–7), i, no. 463. Brihtmær of Gracechurch, a mid-eleventh-century donor of London property to Canterbury Cathedral, was described in a rental of c. 1100 as senator: Anglo-Saxon Charters, ed. A. J. Robertson (Cambridge, 1939), 217, 468–9; Kissan, B. W., ‘An Early List of London Properties’, Transactions of the London and Middlesex Archaeological Society, new series 8 (1938–40), 57–69Google Scholar.

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²⁸ The Gesta Regum Britanniae, being Historia Regum, ed. Wright and Crick, v, at 32–3.

²⁹ Liber Custumarum: pt 1 of Munimenta Gildhallae Londoniensis: Liber Albus, Liber Custumarum et Liber Horn, ed. H. T. Riley (3 vols., Rolls Series, 1859–62), ii, pt 1, 1–15.

³⁰ Scott, A. B., ‘Some Poems Attributed to Richard of Cluny’, in Medieval Learning and Literature: Essays Presented to Richard William Hunt, ed. Alexander, J. J. G. and Gibson, M. T. (Oxford, 1976), 181–99Google Scholar, text at 197. Rigg, A., The History of Anglo-Latin Literature, 1066–1422 (Cambridge, 1992), 135–6Google Scholar n. 231.

³¹ Alexandri Neckam De naturis rerum libro duo: With the Poem of the Same Author, De laudibus divinae sapientia, ed. T. Wright (Rolls Series, 1863), 410, 414–15, 458–9.

³² Otia imperialia: Recreation for an Emperor, Gervase of Tilbury, ed. S. E. Banks and J. W. Binns (Oxford, 2002), 398–403.

³³ For a good photograph of an impression of the obverse and a note by T. A. Heslop on the style of the seal, see Age of Chivalry: Art in Plantagenet England, 1200–1400, ed. J. Alexander and P. Binski (1987), 273, no. 193. For a photograph of an impression of the reverse, see St Paul's, ed. Keene et al., Fig. 11. For the citizens' commemoration of St Thomas: D. Keene and V. Harding, Historical Gazetteer of London before the Great Fire, i: Cheapside (Cambridge, 1987), no. 105/18.

³⁴ Lewis, S., The Art of Matthew Paris in the Chronica Majora (Aldershot, 1987), 332–5Google Scholar and Fig. 204.

³⁵ Gesta Stephani, ed. K. R. Potter and R. H. C. Davis (Oxford, 1976), 4, 112; William Of Malmesbury ca 1090–1143, Historia Novella: The Contemporary History, ed. E. King, trans. K. R. Potter (Oxford, 1998), 94–5; cf. The Chronicle of Jocelin of Brakelond, ed. H. E. Butler (1949), 75–7.

³⁶ The first part is now Manchester, the John Rylands University Library, Rylands Latin MS 155, and the second, BL, Add. MS 14252. See F. Liebermann, Über die Leges Anglorum saeculo xiii ineunte Londiniis collectae (Halle, 1894), and idem, ‘A Contemporary Manuscript of the Leges Anglorum Londiniis collectae’, English Historical Review, 28 (1913), 732–45. A selection of the London material in Add. MS 14252 is printed and discussed in M. Bateson, ‘A London Municipal Collection of the Reign of John’, English Historical Review, 17 (1902), 480–511, 707–30, which also identifies the remaining materials previously printed elsewhere from this or later MSS. The London laws, customs and memoranda from the collection are more comprehensively printed and described in M. Weinbaum, London unter Eduard I. und II. (2 vols., Stuttgart, 1933), ii, 5–91, which remains the most convenient and accurate version of that material so far published. The way in which the collection, for some of its contents, appears to have drawn on earlier and perhaps more accurate, but no longer surviving, transcripts is discussed in Brooke et al., ‘Henry I's charter’. Recent discussions of aspects of the collection are: P. Wormald, ‘“Quadripartitus’”, in Law and Government in Medieval England and Normandy: Essays in Honour of Sir John Holt, ed. G. Garnet and J. Hudson (Cambridge, 1994), 111–47; J. Gillingham, ‘Stupor mundi: 1204 et un obituaire de Richard Coeur de Lion depuis longtemps tombé dans l'oubli’, in Plantagenêts et Capétiens: confrontations et héritages, ed. M. Aurell and N.-Y. Tonnerre (Turnhout, 2006), 397–411. The quires of the MSS are briefly described in N. N. R. Ker, ‘Liber Custumarum and Other Manuscripts Formerly at the Guildhall’, The Guildhall Miscellany 1.3 (1954), 37–45, at 37.

³⁷ The list of sheriffs is printed in Weinbaum, London, ii, 48–9; see also Brooke et al., ‘Henry I's charter’, n. 7, where its last part is described as ‘corrupt’. Allowing for normal variations in name forms and the haste with which the whole of the last part of the collection was compiled, the list overall is an accurate one and it is not necessary to postulate that it was compiled or copied after 1217.

³⁸ The Treatise on the Laws and Customs of the Realm of England Commonly Called Glanville, ed. G. D. G. Hall, with further notes by M. T. Clanchy (Oxford, 1993), lv–lvii.

³⁹ BL, Add. MS 14252, fos. 88v–89, 90v–91.

⁴⁰ Bateson, ‘Municipal Collection’, 483–6; Weinbaum, London, ii, 10–17. The full significance of these additions is not clear. One, referring back to a dispute in the 1130s, concerns the rights of the lord of Baynard's Castle over the water of the Thames; the other, interpreted by Bateson and Weinbaum as a record of civic property, is in fact an extract from an early thirteenth-century rental of property belonging to Canterbury Cathedral Priory on the London waterfront to the west of Queenhithe (see D. Keene and V. Harding, A Survey of Documentary Sources for Property Holding in London before the Great Fire (London Record Society, 22, 1985), 72). A concern with the river is perhaps the connection between them.

⁴¹ Gillingham, ‘Stupor mundi’, 399–400, summarises views on this purpose. See also J. C. Holt, Magna Carta (Cambridge, 1992), 20, 55–7, 93–5, and Wormald, ‘“Quadripartitus’”.

⁴² R. Hanna, London Literature (Cambridge, 2005), 56–8, 70–2, 84–9; Hanna mistranslates a few passages.

⁴³ Historia Anglorum, ed. Greenway, 98–9, 226–7, 298–9, 318–19, 366–7.

⁴⁴ These London additions are identified in Liebermann's edition of the laws: Die Gesetze der Angelsachsen, ed. F. Leibermann (3 vols., Halle, 1903–16), i, 627–70, with these references to Arthur at 655, 659. The text in Gesetze should be read in conjunction with Liebermann, ‘Contemporary Manuscript’.

⁴⁵ Gillingham, ‘Stupor mundi’, 400–8. Gillingham is mistaken in the statement (at 410–11) that the collection's favour towards King Richard is further indicated by its inclusion of the text of Richard's charter concerning Portsmouth issued in 1194: the text is not included, although, for different reasons, a copy forms part of later London collections.

⁴⁶ G. Zarnecki, Later English Romanesque Sculpture, 1140–1210 (1953), 48–9; idem, Romanesque Lincoln: The Sculpture of the Cathedral (Lincoln, 1988); The Romanesque Frieze and its Spectator: The Lincoln Symposium Papers, ed. D. Kahn (1992), passim, and esp. W. Sauerläder, Romanesque sculpture in its architectural context', 17–43, and W. Cahn, ‘Romanesque Sculpture and the Spectator’, 45–60.

⁴⁷ Broderick, H. R., ‘Some Attitudes towards the Frame in Anglo-Saxon Manuscripts of the Tenth and Eleventh Centuries’, Artibus et Historiae, 5 (1982), 31–42CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Carruthers, M., The Craft of Thought: Meditation, Rhetoric and the Making of Images, 400–1200 (Cambridge, 1998), 122, 151–3Google Scholar, 201–4, 237–41; Fowler, A., Renaissance Realism: Narrative Images in Literature and Art (Oxford, 2003), 27–8Google Scholar, 45–6, 77.

⁴⁸ For the interpolation, see Gesetze, ed. Liebermann, i, 655–9.

⁴⁹ B. Hamilton, ‘Prester John and the Three Kings of Cologne’, in Studies in Medieval History Presented to R. H. C. Davis, ed. H. Mayr-Harting and R. I. Moore (1985). For the date of the particular version used in the collection, see M. Gosman, La lettre du Prêtre Jean (Groningen, 1982), 32–4, and B. Wagner, Die ‘Epistola Presbiteris Johannis’: Lateinish und Deutsch; Überlieferung, Textgeschichte, Rezeption und Übertragungen im Mittelalter (Tübingen, 2000), 55. I. Bejczy, La lettre du prêtre Jean (Paris, 2001), passim. See also Hanna, London Literature, 82–6.

⁵⁰ Leges, ed. Downer, 34–7; O'Brien, B. R., God's Peace and the King's Peace: The Laws of Edward the Confessor (Philadelphia, 1999), 44–8CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁵¹ Holt, Magna Carta, 115.

⁵² Gesetze, ed. Liebermann, i, 635–7, 639–40, 655–60, 664.

⁵³ The Historical Works of Gervase of Canterbury, ed. W. Stubbs (2 vols., Rolls Series, 1870–80), i, 96–7.

⁵⁴ Bateson, ‘Municipal Collection’, 507–8; Round, Commune, 237; Weinbaum, London, ii, 49–50. The inventory's phrase cum sigillo de communi cons cannot refer to a seal attached to the charter which precedes it in the list since that charter was a royal one.

⁵⁵ Bateson, ‘Municipal Collection’, 509–11.

⁵⁶ Weinbaum, London, ii, 89–91.

⁵⁷ Patent Rolls 1216–1225 (1901), 211.

⁵⁸ Cf. Poole, R. L., ‘The Publication of Great Charters by the English Kings’, English Historical Review, 28 (1913), 444–53CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

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⁶⁰ Historia Regum, ed. Wright and Crick, ii (the ‘first variant version’), cap. 22.

⁶¹ Anglo-Saxon Writs, ed. F. E. Harmer (Manchester, 1952), 231–5; The Cartulary of Holy Trinity Aldgate, ed. G. A. J. Hodgett (London Record Society 7, 1971), 168. The members of the guild in 1125 included Robert and his brother Ailwin, sons of Leofstan (of whom the latter was probably Henry fitz Ailwin's father) and Edward Hupcornhille, ancestor of the Cornhills.

⁶² Daniel, Les prophéties, 43–4; Brooke and G. Keir, London 800–1216, 120–1.

⁶³ C. Wickham, Courts and Conflict in Twelfth-Century Tuscany (Oxford, 2003), 108, 112, 114–16.

⁶⁴ Up to 1216, ‘laws’ or ‘laws and customs’ are mentioned only in royal charters to Lincoln, Newcastle, Northampton, Oxford and Hartlepool (following Newcastle).

⁶⁵ P. Brand, ‘Westminster Hall and Europe: European Aspects of the Common Law’, in London and Europe, ed. Boffey and King, 55–83.

⁶⁶ Rylands Latin MS 115, fo. 10v; Liebermann, Leges Anglorum, 12–14.

⁶⁷ Bateson, ‘Municipal Collection’, 509; F. Consitt, The London Weavers' Company (Oxford, 1933), pp. 1–6, 180–1.

⁶⁸ His uncle had been responsible for the London weavers' guild and his own city establishment was in the cloth-making district of Candlewick Street, surrounded by cloth tenters and dubbers (probably

dyers): Keene, ‘fitz Ailwin, Henry’, in Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, s.n.; Cartulary of Holy Trinity, ed. Hodgett, no. 426; Corporation of London Records Office, Bridge House Deed, F35.

⁶⁹ Huffman, J. P., Family, Commerce and Religion in London and Cologne (Cambridge, 1998), 9–22CrossRefGoogle Scholar; idem, The Social Politics of Medieval Diplomacy: Anglo-German Relations (1066–1307) (Ann Arbor, 1999), 168-222; Stehkamper, H., ‘England und die Stadt Köln als Wahlmacher König Ottos IV’, in Köln das Reich und Europa: Abhandlungen über weiträumige Verflechtungen der Stadt Köln in Politik, Rech und Wirtschaft im Mittelalter (Mitteilungen aus dem Stadtarchiv von Köln, 1971), 213–44Google Scholar; Rotuli Cartarum, ed. T. D. Hardy, i.i (1837), 60, 194; Hansisches Urkundenbuch, ed. Verein für Hansische Geschichte (11 vols., Halle and Leipzig, 1876–1916), i, nos. 40, 84.

⁷⁰ Bateson, ‘Municipal Collection’, 728; Poole, A. L., From Domesday Book to Magna Carta, 1087–1216 (Oxford, 1955), 449–53Google Scholar; Huffman, Social Politics, 209, 211, 214.

⁷¹ The Great Roll of the Pipe for the Fourth Year of the Reign of King Henry III, Michaelmas 1220, ed. B. E. Harris (Pipe Roll Society, new series 47, 1981–3), 136.

⁷² P. Wormald, The Making of English Law: King Alfred to the Twelfth Century, i: Legislation and its Limits (Oxford, 1999), 236–44.

⁷³ Gesetze, ed. Liebermann, i, 232–5; The Laws of the Kings of England from Edmund to Henry I, ed. A. J. Robertson (Cambridge, 1925), 70–3, 322–4.

⁷⁴ Wormald, Making of English Law, 240–1, 320–2, 371.

⁷⁵ M. Suttor, Vie et dynamique d'une fleuve: la Meuse de Sedan à Maastrich (des origines à 1600) (Brussels, 2006), 15, 182–3, 242, 302–6, 346–51.

⁷⁶ Huffman, Family, Commerce and Religion, 14–17.

⁷⁷ Bateson, ‘Municipal Collection’, 495–502; Weinbaum, London, ii, 29–38; cf. Brooke and Keir, London, 266–8; Nightingale, P., A Medieval Mercantile Community: The Grocers' Company and the Politics and Trade of London, 1000–1485 (New Haven and London, 1995), 7–10CrossRefGoogle Scholar, 44–5.

⁷⁸ Bateson, ‘Municipal Collection’, 485–95; Weinbaum, London, ii, 13–17.

⁷⁹ Weinbaum's reading and translation are here preferable to Bateson's.

⁸⁰ St Paul's, ed. Keene et al., 31.

⁸¹ Gesetze, ed. Liebermann, i, 657.

⁸² Add. MS 14252, fos. 106–28; Bateson, ‘Municipal Collection’, 505–730; Weinbaum, London, ii, 39–91.

⁸³ See E. Miller and J. Hatcher, Medieval England. Towns, Commerce, and Crafts, 1086–1348 (1995), 188 (includes errors); The Cambridge History of Scandinavia, ed. K. Helle (Cambridge, 2003), 385.

⁸⁴ J. France, The Cistercians in Scandinavia (Kalamazoo, 1992), 77–98, 119–22, 281–4, 322–4, 328, 493, 522–5, 535.

⁸⁵ O'Brien, God's Peace, 186–7, 190–3.

⁸⁶ E.g. Gesetze, ed. Liebermann, i, 635, 659–60.

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⁸⁸ Sverissaga: The Saga of King Sverri of Norway, trans. J. Sephton (1899), 49, 166, 128–30, 198; for the reliability of this source, see History of Scandinavia, ed. Helle, 502.

⁸⁹ Gesetze, ed., Liebermann, i, 658; D. Kattinger, Die Gotländische Genossenschaft: der frühansisch-gotländisch Handel in Nord- und Westeuropa (Cologne, Weimar and Vienna, 1999), 13–23, 155–87; Codex Diplomaticus Lubecensis: Urkundenbuch der Stadt Lübeck, ed. Verein für Lübeckische Geschichte (11 vols., Lübeck, 1843–1905), i, nos. 11–15, 20, 23, 27–8.

⁹⁰ Foedera, ed. T. Rymer et al. (3 vols. in 6 parts, 1816–30), i.i, 149; History of Scandinavia, ed. Helle, 375–6.

⁹¹ Codex Diplomaticus Lubecensis, no. 35; Huffman, Family Commerce and Religion, 23–4.

⁹² Historia Anglorum, ed. Greenway, lviii, 584–5.

⁹³ Keene, ‘fitz Osbert, William’.