Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-r5fsc Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-21T08:35:04.911Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Catholics and the Poor in Early Modern Europe

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  12 February 2009

Brian Pullan
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Extract

A quiet revolution has occurred of late in the history of poor people and poor relief in early modern Europe. Shapeless, decentralized and infinite, like the story of most everyday things, it has depended for progress on the laborious accumulation of local examples, garnered from patchy, weedy and erratically surviving evidence; and for vitality on cerebration which outstrips research, on hypo-theses which demand to be tested in a hundred detailed trials. Time was when sociologists and students of social legislation encouraged historians to believe that with the Reformation there developed fundamental differences in the ways in which the old and the new faiths treated their poor–variances which sprang essentially from the abandonment in the wake of Luther of the ancient belief that ‘good works’ (almsgiving included) offered to those who performed them a direct means of securing salvation. To compress is often to parody. But it can perhaps be said that the coming of Protestantism, in all its forms, was believed to have emancipated poor-relief from the control of a too-indulgent Church, which encouraged the almsgiver to think only of the benefit to his own immortal soul. In so doing the Church had allegedly destroyed all incentive to contrive a rational philanthropy—to build systems which would benefit the receiver of alms, which would serve the common weal, which would in general be directed at procuring good order and reducing physical want and suffering. Hence the Church was credited with a very low capacity for organization and even accused of breeding the very poor whom it relieved, by depriving them of all incentive to find employment and attain self-support.

Type
Research Article
Information
Transactions of the Royal Historical Society , Volume 26 , December 1976 , pp. 15 - 34
Copyright
Copyright © Royal Historical Society 1976

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

* Professor Pullan was unable through illness to read his paper.

1 For references to these arguments, see Tierney, B., Medieval Poor Law: a Sketch of Canonical Theory and its Application in England (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1959), p. 46Google Scholaret seq., Davis, N. Z., ‘Assistance, humanisme et hérésie: le cas de Lyon’, Études sur l'histoire de la pauvreté (Moyen Age—XVIe siècle), sous la direction Mollat, de Michel. ii (Paris, 1974), pp. 762 –64Google Scholar(originally published as ‘Poor Relief, Humanism and Heresy: the Case of Lyon’, Studies in Medieval and Renaissance History, v, 1968—I have referred to the French version because the references have been brought up to date); Pullan, B. S., Rich and Poor in Renaissance Venice: the Social Institutions of a Catholic State, to 1620 (Oxford, 1971), pp. 11–12, 197–98Google Scholar.

2 E.g. those of the four Mendicant Orders in Ypres, 1530: see doc. viii printed in Nolf, J., La rèforme de la bienfaisance à ypres au XVIe siècle (Ghent, 1915), pp. 63–64Google Scholar; and that of Soto, D., Deliberation en la causa de los pobres (Salamanca, 1545), fos. 8V.–11Google Scholar.

3 Coste, P., Le grand saint du grand siècle: Monsieur Vincent, ii (Paris, 1932), pp. 502–03Google Scholar; cf. also p. 612.

4 In 1644: see Deyon, P., Étude sur la sociiti urbaine au XVIIe siècle: Amiens, capitate provinciate (Paris and The Hague, 1967), pp. 350–51Google Scholar.

5 Compare, for example, Gutton, J. P., La société et les pauvres: l'exemple de la géneralité de Lyon, 1534–1783 (Paris, 1971), pp. 11–13Google Scholar, Geremek, B., ‘Criminalité, vagabondage, paupérisme: la marginalité à l'aube des temps modernes’, Revue d'histoire moderne et contemporaine, xxi (1974), p. 345et seq.Google Scholar and J. Depauw, ‘Pauvres, pauvres mendiants, mendiants valides ou vagabonds? Les hésitations de la législation royale’, ibid., pp. 402–07, with Clark, P., ‘The Migrant in Kentish Towns, 1580–1640’, in Crisis and Order in English Towns, 1500–1700: Essays in Urban History, ed. Clark, P. and Slack, P. (London, 1972), p. 138et seq.Google Scholar, P. Slack, ‘Poverty and Politics in Salisbury, 1597–1666’, ibid., pp. 165–69; Slack, P., ‘Vagrants and Vagrancy in England, 1598–1664’, Economic History Review, second series, xxvii (1974), pp. 360–79Google Scholar, and Beier, A. L., ‘Vagrants and the Social Order in Elizabethan England’, Past and Present, no. 64 (08 1974), pp. 3–29CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

6 See Venturi, P. Tacchi, Storia della Compagnia di Gesù in Italia, I i (Rome, 1938), pp. 202–12Google Scholar; Bull, Sixtus V's ‘Quamvis infirma’ of 11th 05 1587Google Scholar, Bullarium diplomatum et privilegiorum sanctorum Romanorum pontificum (Aosta, 1857–1872), viii, pp. 847–53Google Scholar; Delumeau, J., Vie économique et sodale de Rome dans la seconde moitié du XVlème siècle, i (Paris, 1957), pp. 404–05Google Scholar; Pullan, , Rich and Poor, p. 365Google Scholar; Foucault, M., Folie et déraison: histoire de la folie à l'áge classique (Paris, 1961), p. 86et seq.Google Scholar; Coste, , M. Vincent, ii, p. 483Google Scholar; Deyon, , Amiens, p. 352Google Scholar; Gutton, , La société et les pauvres, p. 271Google Scholar.

7 See William Marshall's translation (1535) of the Ypres scheme of poor relief, reprinted in Saher, F. R., Some Early Tracts on Poor Relief (London, 1926), pp. 50–51Google Scholar.

8 Salter, F. R., Some Early Tracts on Poor Relief, p. 44Google Scholar.

9 Pullan, , Rich and Poor, pp. 303–04Google Scholar. Cf. Gutton, , La sociètè et les pauvres, pp. 187–89, 239–40Google Scholar.

10 Nolf, , Bienfaisance à Ypres, doc. viii, pp. 40–76Google Scholar.

11 See his ‘conference’ on the Christian duty of work, 28 November 1649, in Conferences of St Vincent de Paul to the Sisters of Charity, transl. Leonard, J., ii (London, 1938), p. 117Google Scholar.

12 Allier, R., La Cabale des Divots, 1627–1666 (Paris, 1902), pp. 135–36Google Scholar; Coste, , M. Vincent, ii, p. 516Google Scholar.

13 ‘To the Christian Nobility of the German Nation’, Luther's Works, xliv, ed. Atkinson, J. T. (Philadelphia, 1966), p. 187Google Scholar; Moeller, B., Imperial Cities and the Reformation: Three Essays (Philadelphia, 1972), pp. 58–59Google Scholar.

14 Gutton, , La socièté et les pauvres pp. 191–92, 238–39, 286, 372–73Google Scholar.

15 Cf. Allier, La Cabale, passim; Foucault, , Folie et déraison, p. 57et seq.Google Scholar; Chill, E., ‘Religion and Mendicity in Seventeenth-Century France’, International Review of Social History, vii (1962), pp. 400–25CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Gutton, , La société et les pauures, p. 298et seq.Google Scholar; Depauw, ‘Pauvres, pauvres mendiants’, passim.

16 For the fullest discussions of the flagellant movements of 1260 and of the fraternities which they founded, see Il movimento dei Disciplinati nel seltimo centenario dal suo inizio (Perugia–1260), Appendice 9 to Bollettino della Deputazione di Storia Patriaper l'Umbria (Spoleto, 1962)Google Scholar; also the wide-ranging but not entirely accurate survey by Monti, G. M., Le confratemite medievali dell' alta e media Italia (2 vols., Venice, 1927)Google Scholar. On Venetian lay fraternities, see Pullan, , Rich and Poor, pp. 33–193Google Scholar, and Mueller, R. C., ‘Charitable Institutions, the Jewish Community, and Venetian Society’, Studi veneziani, xiv (1972), p. 41et seq.Google Scholar.

17 Cf. Bonenfant, P., ‘Les origines et le caractère de la réforme de la bienfaisance publique aux Pays-Bas sous le règne de Charles-Quint’, Revue belge de philologie et d'histoire, v (1926), p. 898et seq., and vi (1927), p. 207 et seq.Google Scholar; Moeller, , Imperial Cities, p. 45et seq.Google Scholar; Chrisman, M. U., Strasbourg and the Reform (New Haven and London, 1967), pp. 35, 42–44, 275 et seq..Google Scholar; Walton, R. C., Zwingli's Theocracy (Toronto, 1967), p. 4et seq.Google Scholar; Kingdon, R. M., ‘Social Welfare in Calvin's Geneva ‘, American Historical Review, lxxvi (1971), pp. 53–55Google Scholar.

18 Cf. Biéler, A., La pensée économique et sociale de Calvin (Geneva, 1959), pp. 153–56, 365–68Google Scholar; Henderson, R. W., ‘Sixteenth-Century Community Benevolence: an Attempt to Resacralize the Secular’, Church History, xxxviii (1969), pp. 421–28CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Kingdon, , ‘Social Welfare’, pp. 59–65Google Scholar. Bonenfant, P., ‘Un aspect du régime calviniste à Bruxelles au XVIème siècle: la question de la bienfaisance’, Bulletin de la Commission Royale d'Histoire, lxxxix (1925), discusses at pp. 266–68, 270 et seq.Google Scholarthe role of deacons in the care of the poor in the Netherlands.

19 See Mitchison, R., ‘The Making of the Old Scottish Poor Law’, Past and Present, no. 63 (05 1974), p. 62et seq.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

20 For clear examples of this, see Pugh, W. J., ‘Social Welfare and the Edict of Nantes: Lyon and Nîmes’, French Historical Studies, Viii (1973–1974), pp. 360–66Google Scholar. For the decision of Parisian parish fraternities to deny assistance to Protestants and to Catholics who accepted charity from Protestants, see Allier, , La Cabale, p. 102Google Scholar.

21 In the judgment of Gutton, , La société et les pauvres, pp. 324–26Google Scholar.

22 Cf. Bossy, J., ‘The Counter-Reformation and the People of Catholic Europe’, Past and Present, no. 47 (05 1970), pp. 59–60CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

23 See Slack, , ‘Poverty and Polities’, pp. 180–91Google Scholar. Cf. also Poor Relief in Elizabethan Ipswich, ed. Webb, J., Suffolk Records Society Publications, ix (1966)Google Scholar, for effective interaction between public and private relief institutions in an English provincial town.

24 As has been so amply demonstrated by Jordan, W. K., in Philanthropy in England, 1480–1660 (London, 1959)Google Scholar; The Charities of London, 1480–1660 (London, 1960)Google Scholar; The Charities of Rural England, 1480–1660 (London, 1961)Google Scholar.

25 Calvin, , Institutes of the Christian Religion, III, xviii, 6 (7th American edn, Philadelphia, 1936, ii, pp. 68–69)Google Scholar; Conferences of St Vincent de Paul, i. p. 172, 15 January 1645.

26 For the origins of Monti di Pieta, see Holzapfel, H., Die Anfange der Monies Pietatis (1460–1515) (Munich, 1903)Google Scholar, and the monograph by Majarelli, S. and Nicolini, U., Il Monte dei Poveri di Perugia: periodo delle origini (1462–74) (Perugia, 1962)Google Scholar. For their subsequent development, see the miscellaneous essays in Archivi storici delle aziende di credito (2 vols., Rome, 1956)Google Scholar; Martelli, M., Storia del Monte di Pietà in Lugo di Romagna (1546–1368) (Florence, 1969)Google Scholar; Pullan, , Rich and Poor, pp. 524–26, 579–625Google Scholar.

27 See Pullan, , Rich and Poor, pp. 203–05Google Scholar, with references.

28 See the excellent Ph.D. thesis of Martz, L. M., ‘Poverty and Welfare in Habsburg Spain: the Example of Toledo’, University of London, 1974, p. 43et seq., p. 84 et seq.Google Scholar; Coste, , M. Vincent ii, p. 496et seq.Google Scholar; Foucault, , Folie et déraison, p. 58et seq.Google Scholar

29 Cf. Conferences of St Vincent de Paul, i, pp. 13, 56–57, 80–82, 184–85, 279; Coste, , M. Vincent, i. p. 260et seq., 391–92, 428–30Google Scholar.

30 Coste, , M. Vincent, ii, pp. 581–723Google Scholar.

31 For French examples see Allier, , La Cabale, p. 233et seq.Google Scholar, Coste, , M. Vincent, i, pp. 184, 312–13, 334–35Google Scholar; Gutton, , La société et les pauvres, pp. 373–76, 394–97Google Scholar. For Italian, Holzapfel, Die Anfönge, passim, and Venturi, Tacchi, Storia delta Compagnia di Gesù, I i, p. 385, II ii, p. 174Google Scholar.

32 E.g. in Bartolomeo Bontempelli, a Brescian mercer of Rialto, who gave 36,000 ducats to the construction of the beggars' hospital in Venice in his lifetime, and 100,000 ducats to the same foundation by the will he made in 1613—see Capitoli della verieranda congregatione dell' Hospitale di Santo Lazaro et Mendicanti della cittά di Venetia (Venice, 1619), pp. 7–8Google Scholar.

33 See Morçay, R., Saint Antonin, Archêveque de Florence (1389–1450) (Paris, 1914), pp. 86–88Google Scholar; Venturi, Tacchi, Storia della Compagnia di Gesù, I i, pp. 401–04Google Scholar.

34 For the decrees of Borromeo's provincial synods on begging, 1565–79, see Acta Ecclesiae Mediolanensis (Milan, 1583), fos 21v., 29V., 87V., 88, 129VGoogle Scholar. For the spread of fraternities or hospitals dedicated to St Charles Borromée in France, see Coste, , M. Vincent, i, pp. 132–33Google Scholar; Deyon, , Amiens, p. 352Google Scholar; Gutton, , La société et les pauvres, pp. 394–95Google Scholar.

35 See Davis, ‘Assistance’, passim; Gutton, , La sociét; et les pauvres, pp. 234–37Google Scholar.

36 See Pullan, , Rich and Poor, pp. 219–23, 235–36, 245 et seq., 315–23Google Scholar; Gutton, , La sociét et les pauvres, pp. 225et seq., 264–65, 266–69, 271Google Scholar; Deyon, , Amiens, pp. 353–54Google Scholar; and, in general, J. N. Biraben, ‘Les pauvres et la peste’, in Mollat, , Études, ii, pp. 505–18Google Scholar.

37 For examples see Hauser, H.. ‘Une famine il y a 400 ans: organization communale de la dèfense contre la disette’, in his Travailleurs et marchands dans l'ancienne France (Paris, 1920), pp. 114–29Google Scholar; Gascon, R., Grand commerce et vie urbaine au XVIème siècle: Lyon et ses marchands, ii (Paris, 1971), pp. 774–75Google Scholar; Gutton, , La société et les pauvres, pp. 261–62Google Scholar; Pullan, , Rich and Poor, p. 240et seq., 355 et seq.Google Scholar

38 For French examples see Fosseyeux, M., ‘La taxe des pauvres au XVIème siècle’, Revue d'histoire de l'Église de France, xx (1934), pp. 407–32CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

39 Cf. Geremek, B., ‘La lutte contre le vagabondage à Paris aux XlVéeme et XVéme siècles’, Ricerche storiche ed economiche in memoria di Corrado Barbagallo, ii (Naples, 1970), pp. 213–36Google Scholar; Geremek, B., ‘Renfermement des pauvres en Italie (XlVéme–XVIéme siécle): remarques préliminaires’, Histoire économique du monde méditerranéen, 1450–1650: mélanges en l'honneur de Fernand Braudel, i (Toulouse, 1973), pp. 206–07Google Scholar; Geremek, , ‘Criminalité, vagabondage, paupérisme’, p. 339et seq.Google Scholar; Misraki, J., ‘Criminalité et pauvreté en France à l'époque de la Guerre de Cent Ans’, in Mollat, , Études, ii, pp. 535–46Google Scholar; R. Favreau, ‘Pauvrete en Poitou et en Anjou à la fin du Moyen Âge’, ibid., ii, p. 604 etseq.; Gutton, , La société et les pauvres, pp. 211–18, 343–45. 364, 369Google Scholar; Foucault, , Folk et déraison, pp. 74–75Google Scholar; Slack, , ‘Poverty and Polities’, p. 165Google Scholar.

40 Cf. Pugh, , ‘Social Welfare’, p. 375Google Scholar, and Jordan, , Philanthropy in England, pp. 230–32Google Scholar.

41 See Bonenfant, , ‘Un aspect du regime calviniste’, p. 270et seq.Google Scholar; Pugh, , ‘Social Welfare’, pp. 362–66Google Scholar.

42 Estimates for Lyons, in Davis, , ‘Assistance’, pp. 800, 819–20Google Scholar, and in Gascon, , Grand commerce, i, pp. 403–04Google Scholar; also R. Gascon, ‘Économie et pauvreté aux XVIéme et XVIIé me siécles: Lyon, ville exemplaire et prophétique’, in Mollat, , Etudes, ii, PP. 755–56Google Scholar.

43 See Ciardini, M., I banchieri ebrei in Firenze nel secolo XV e il Monte di Pieàt fondato da Girolamo Savonarola (Borgo San Lorenzo, 1907), doc. xvi, pp. lii–liii, 63–67Google ScholarNoonan, J. T. Jr, The Scholastic Analysis of Usury (Cambridge, Mass., 1957), p. 294et seq.Google Scholar

44 Nolf, , Bitnfaisance à ypres, doc. viii, pp. 40–76Google Scholar. Soto's Deliberation, already cited; stands opposed to the work of a Benedictine, Medina, Juan, De la orden que en algunos pueblos de Espana se ha puesto en la limosna: para rimedio de los verdaderos pobres (Salamanca, 1545)Google Scholar. For some interesting new points about the Soto-Medina controversy, see Martz, , Poverty and Welfare, p. 29et seq.Google Scholar

45 Cf. Gutton, , La société et les pauvres, pp. 410–11Google Scholar; Pullan, Rich and Poor, Parts I and II.

46 Soto, Deliberation, fos 2Iv., 26–27.

47 See Palmio, B., ‘Alle congregationi delli magnifici Signori Governatori et delle magnifice Signore Governatrici della Casa delle Gittelle di Venetia nella Zuecca’, in Constitution et regale della Casa delle Cittelle di Venetia (Venice, 1701), pp. 7–8Google Scholar. Cf. Pugh, , ‘Social Welfare’, p. 358et seq.Google Scholar

48 Drexel, J., Gazophylacium Ckristi; sive, De Eleemosyna, Pars II, caput v, in his Opera omnia iii (Lyons, 1647), p. 178Google Scholar. For a biographical note on Drexel, 1581–1638, Sommervogel, C., Bibliothique de la Compagnie de Jisus (Brussels–Paris, 1890–1909), iii, col. 181Google Scholar. The Gazophylacium was published in Latin at Munich in 1637 and subsequently also at Antwerp; a Flemish edition appeared at Antwerp in 1641.

49 Drexel, J., Gazophylacium, Pars III, caput vi, p. 304Google Scholar.

50 Ibid., Pars II, caput v, p. 177; Pars III, caput vi, p. 210.

51 Ibid., Pars II, caput ii, p. 167.

52 Ibid., Pars II, caput v, p. 178; Pars HI, caput v, p. 199; Conferences of St Vincent de Paul, i, pp. 56–59, 16 March 1642; Coste, , M. Vincent, i, pp. 95–96, 106–07, 317–19Google Scholar.

53 Drexel, , Gazophylacium, generally, and especially at Pars II, caput iv, p. 173Google Scholar.

54 Cf. Pullan, , Rich and Poor, pp. 265–67Google Scholar; Conferences of St Vincent de Paul, i, pp. 19–20, 19 July 1640, p. 168, 10 January 1645.

55 Coste, , M. Vincent, i, pp. 88–90Google Scholar.

56 Ibid., i, pp. 281, 325–38.

57 Pullan, , Rich and Poor, p. 386et seq.Google Scholar

58 See above, n. 6.

59 Cf. e.g. Gutton, , La société et les pauvres, pp. 324–26Google Scholar; Conferences of St Vincent de Paul, i, pp. 4, 17–18, 31 July 1634, 19 July 1640: Pullan, , Rich and Poor, pp. 402–03Google Scholar.

60 Conferences of St Vincent de Paul, iii, p. 293, II Nov. 1657; cf. Coste, , M. Vincent, ii, pp. 484–85Google Scholar.

61 Cf. Davis, N. Z., ‘Some Tasks and Themes in the Study of Popular Religion’, in The Pursuit of Holiness in Late Medieval and Renaissance Religion: Papers from the University of Michigan Conference, ed. Trinkaus, G. and Oberman, H. A. (Leiden, 1974), PP. 316–18Google Scholar.

62 ‘The Blessed Sacrament of the Holy and True Body of Christ and the Brother-hoods (1519)’, Luther's Works, xxxv, ed. Bachmann, E. T. (Philadelphia, 1960), PP. 67–73Google Scholar.

63 On the Compagnie del Divino Amore, see Paschini, P., ‘Le Compagnie del Divino Amore e la beneficenza pubblica nei primi decenni del Cinquecento’, in his Tre Ricerche sulla storia della Chiesa ml Cinquecento (Rome, 1945)Google Scholar, and Tramontin, S., ‘Lo spirito, le attività, gli sviluppi dell’ Oratorio del Divino Amore nella Venezia del Cinquecento ‘, Studi Veneziani xiv (1972), pp. 111–36Google Scholar. For the statutes of the early Compagnie, see Venturi, Tacchi, Storia della Compagnia di Gesù, I ii, pp. 25–38Google Scholar, and Cistellini, A., Figure della riforma pretridentina (Brescia, 1948), pp. 273–77Google Scholar. On the Compagnie du Saint Sacrement, see Allier, La Cabale, passim; Chill, ‘Religion and Mendicity’, passim; Gutton, , La société et les pauvres, p. 377. etseq.Google Scholar; Pugh, , ‘Social Welfare’, pp. 371–74Google Scholar.

64 Palmio, , ‘Alle congregationi’, pp. 18–19Google Scholar; Coste, , M. Vincent, ii, p. 516Google Scholar; Foucault, , Folie et diraison, pp. 191–92Google Scholar.

65 Conferences of St Vincent de Paul, i, p. 19, 19 July 1640; iii, p. 98, 29 September 1655.

66 See Venturi, Tacchi, Storia della Compagnia, I i, pp. 217–90Google Scholar; Evennett, H. O., The Spirit of the Counter Reformation (Cambridge, 1968), pp. 37–39Google Scholar; Bossy, , ‘The Counter Reformation’, pp. 62–64Google Scholar.

67 See Pullan, , Rich and Poor, pp. 232–33, 262, 276–77, 328–29, 388, 404Google Scholar; cf. Allier, , La Cabale, pp. 18–20Google Scholar, and Coste, , M. Vincent, i, pp. 120–21, 325–26Google Scholar.

68 Goste, , M. Vincent, i, p. 135Google Scholar.

69 For examples, see Carsten, F. L., Princes and Parliaments in Germany from the fifteenth to the seventeenth century (Oxford, 1959), pp. 39, 40, 160–61, 206–11Google Scholar; Chrisman, , Strasbourg, pp. 236–38Google Scholar; Walton, , zwingli's Theocracy, pp. 177–78Google Scholar; Dorwart, R. A., The Prussian Welfare State before 1740 (Cambridge, Mass., 1971), pp. 147–148CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Webb, , ed., Poor Relief in Ipswich, p. 12Google Scholar.

70 Cf. Delumeau, , Vie de Rome, i, pp. 429–31Google Scholar; Pullan, , Rich and Poor, pp. 376–94Google Scholar; Gutton, , La soctiété etles pauvres, pp. 389–92Google Scholar; Deyon, , Amiens, pp. 354–55Google Scholar.

71 Pullan, , Rich and Poor, pp. 208, 426Google Scholar.

72 Delumeau, , Vie de Rome i, p. 412et seq.Google Scholar; Pullan, , Rich and Poor, pp. 362–70Google Scholar; Prodi, P., Il Cardinale Gabriele Paleolli (1522–1597), ii (Rome, 1967), pp. 192–93Google Scholar; Foucault, , Folie et déraison, p. 57etseq.Google Scholar; Gutton, , La société et les pauvres, p. 295et seq.Google Scholar; Chill, , ‘Religion and Mendicity’, p. 403et seq.Google Scholar; Depauw, , ‘Pauvres, pauvres mendiants’, p. 402et seq.Google Scholar