Hostname: page-component-586b7cd67f-rdxmf Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-11-21T01:05:42.597Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Human Rights Half Measures: Avoiding Accountability in Postwar Sri Lanka

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  11 November 2019

Get access

Abstract

Why do repressive states create human rights institutions that cost them money and political capital but fail to silence international criticism? The academic literature assumes that states engaging in disingenuous human rights behavior are hoping to persuade (or deceive) liberal Western states and international advocates. But if human rights promoters in the West are the target audience for the creation of these half measures institutions, the strategy appears puzzlingly miscalculated. It reveals that the repressive state is sensitive to international opinion, and often results in increased pressure. The author argues that states engaging in human rights half measures are playing to a different, previously overlooked audience: swing states that can act as veto points on multilateral efforts to enforce human rights. The article illustrates these dynamics with a case study of Sri Lanka’s response to international pressure for postwar justice. The author shows that although the creation of a series of weak investigative commissions was prompted by pressure from Western governments and ngos, it was not an attempt to satisfy or hoodwink these actors. Instead, it was part of a coalition-blocking strategy to convince fellow developing states on the UN Human Rights Council to oppose the creation of an international inquiry and to give them the political cover to do so.

Type
Research Article
Copyright
Copyright © Trustees of Princeton University 2019 

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Amnesty International. 2011. “When Will They Get Justice? Failures of Sri Lanka’s Lessons Learnt and Reconciliation Commission.” September 7. At https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/ASA37/008/2011/en/, accessed August 30, 2019.Google Scholar
Amnesty International. 2015. “Bahrain: Behind the Rhetoric: Human Rights buses in Bahrain Continue Unabated.” April 16. At https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/mde11/1396/2015/en/, accessed August 30, 2019.Google Scholar
Aneez, Shihar. 2014. “Sri Lanka’s President Denounces US Plan for Rights Resolution.” Reuters. February 28. At https://uk.reuters.com/article/srilanka-president/sri-lankas-president-denounces-u-s-plan-for-rights-resolution-id INDEEA1R0AI20140228, accessed August 21, 2019.Google Scholar
Aneez, Shihar, and Sirilal, Ranga. 2014. “US: Sri Lanka Refuses Visa for State Dept Official after War Crimes Accusations.” Reuters. February 4. At https://www.reuters.com/article/us-srilanka-rights-usa/us-sri-lanka-refuses-visa-for-state-dept-official-after-war-crime-accusations-idUSBREA131EW20140204, accessed August 30, 2019.Google Scholar
Annan, Kofi. 2005. “Secretary-General’s Address to the Commission on Human Rights.” April 7. At https://www.un.org/sg/en/content/sg/statement/2005-04-07/secretary-generals-address-commission-human-rights, accessed September 11, 2019.Google Scholar
Aryasinha, Ravinatha. 2013a. “Intervention at the Informal Meeting on the Draft Resolution on ‘Promoting Reconciliation and Accountability in Sri Lanka.’” UNHRC, 22nd Regular Session. March 8.Google Scholar
Aryasinha, Ravinatha. 2013b. “Statement of Sri Lanka.” UNHRC, 23rd Regular Session. May 27.Google Scholar
Aryasinha, Ravinatha. 2013c. “Statement of Sri Lanka.” UNHRC, 24rd Regular Session. September 25.Google Scholar
Aryasinha, Ravinatha. 2014. “Intervention at the First Informal Meeting Called by the Sponsors of the Draft Resolution on Sri Lanka.” UNHRC, 25th Regular Session. March 7.Google Scholar
Tribune, Asian. 2012. “Vested Groups’ Intention of Interfering in Sri Lanka’s Internal Affairs Exposed.” March 6. At http://www.asiantribune.com/node/57677, accessed August 30, 2019.Google Scholar
Bass, Gary. 2016. “Bargaining Away Justice: India, Pakistan, and the International Politics of Impunity for the Bangladesh Genocide.International Security 4, no. 2: 140–87. doi: 10.1162/ISEC_a_00258.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
BBC News. 2013. “CHOGM: Sri Lanka’s Mahinda Rajapaksa Hits Out at Critics.” November 14. At https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-24936948, accessed August 30, 2019.Google Scholar
Bennett, Andrew. 2010. “Process Tracing and Causal Inference.” In Brady, Henry E. and Collier, David, eds., Rethinking Social Inquiry: Diverse Tools, Shared Standards, 2nd ed. Lanham, Md.: Rowman and Littlefield: 207–19.Google Scholar
Biswal, Nisha Desai. 2014. “Press Conference on Status of Human Rights in Sri Lanka.” February 2. At https://2009-2017.state.gov/p/sca/rls/rmks/2014/221143.htm, accessed August 30, 2019.Google Scholar
Búzás, Zoltán I. 2016. “Evading International Law: How Agents Comply with the Letter of the Law but Violate Its Purpose.European Journal of International Relations 23, no. 4: 857–83. doi: 10.1177/1354066116679242.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cardenas, Sonia. 2007. Conflict and Compliance: State Responses to International Human Rights Pressure. Philadelphia, Pa.: University of Pennsylvania Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chayes, Abram, and Antonia Handler Chayes. 1995. The New Sovereignty: Compliance with International Regulatory Agreements. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Chellaney, Brahma. 2009. “China Fuels Sri Lankan War.”Japan Times. March 4. At https://www.japantimes.co.jp/opinion/2009/03/04/commentary/china-fusels-sri-lankan-war/, accessed August 30, 2019.Google Scholar
Collier, David. 2011. “Understanding Process Tracing.PS: Political Science & Politics 44, no. 4: 823–30. doi: 10.1017/S1049096511001429.Google Scholar
Gazette, Colombo. 2014. “War Crimes Attempt on MR.” January 29.Google Scholar
Telegraph, Colombo. 2013. “Buddhist Monk Led Mob Sabotages Meetings Again, This Time on LLRC In Batticaloa.” July 31.Google Scholar
Cooley, Alexander, and Schaff, Matthew. 2017. “Grounding the Backlash: Regional Security Treaties, Counternorms, and Human Rights in Eurasia.” In Hopgood, Stephen, Snyder, Jack, and Vinjamuri, Leslie, eds., Human Rights Futures. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press: 159–88.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cronin-Furman, Kate. 2017. “How to Get Away with Mass Murder: Denying Mass Atrocities in Sri Lanka and Syria.” War on the Rocks. May 18. At https://warontherocks.com/2017/05/how-to-get-away-with-mass-murder-denying-mass-atrocities-in-sri-lanka-and-syria/, accessed August 30, 2019.Google Scholar
Dai, Xinyuan. 2005. “Why Comply? The Domestic Constituency Mechanism.InternationalOrganization 59, no. 2: 363–98. doi: 10.1017/S0020818305050125.Google Scholar
Daily, FT. 2012. “UNHRC Battle Will Be Fought to the Very Last Minute.” March 10. At http://www.ft.lk/opinion/unhrc-battle-will-be-fought-to-the-very-last-minute-ambassador-tamara-kunanayakam/14-75948, accessed September 11, 2019.Google Scholar
Daily Mirror. 2011. “China Backs Sri Lanka.” May 1. At http://www.dailymirrorlk/11162/-china-backs-sri-lanka-, accessed September 11, 2019.Google Scholar
Darusman, Marzuki, Ratner, Steven, and Sooka, Yasmin. 2011. Report of the Secretary General’s Panel of Experts on Accountability in Sri Lanka. March 31. At https://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/POE_Report_Full.pdf, accessed August 30, 2019.Google Scholar
Darusman, Marzuki, Ratner, Steven, and Sooka, Yasmin. 2012. “Revisiting Sri Lanka’s Bloody War.” New York Times. March 2. At https://www.nytimes.com/2012/03/03/opinion/revisiting-sri-lankas-bloody-war.html, accessed August 30, 2019.Google Scholar
Downs, George W., David, M. Rocke, and Peter, N. Barsoom. 1996. “Is the Good News About Compliance Good News About Cooperation?International Organization 50, no. 3: 379406. doi: 10.1017/S0020818300033427.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Economist. 2014. “Sri Lanka and Human Rights: Never a Good Time.” March 21. At https://www.economist.com/banyan/2014/03/21/never-a-good-time, accessed August 30, 2019.Google Scholar
Elster, Jon. 1998. “Deliberation and Constitution Making.” In Elster, Jon, ed., Deliberative Democracy. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press: 97122.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Finnemore, Martha. 2009. “Legitimacy, Hypocrisy, and the Social Structure of Unipolarity: Why Being a Unipole Isn’t All It’s Cracked up to Be.World Politics 61, no. 1 (January): 5885. doi: 10.1017/S0043887109000082.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Foreign Affairs Media Relations Office (Canada). 2012. “LLRC Report: Decisive Action Now Required.” January 12. At https://srilankabrief.blogspot.com/2012/01/llrc-report-decisive-action-now.html?m=0, accessed September 11, 2019.Google Scholar
Franklin, James C. 2008. “Shame on You: The Impact of Human Rights Criticism on Political Repression in Latin America.International Studies Quarterly 52, no. 1: 187211. doi: 10.1111/j.1468-2478.2007.00496.x.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fujii, Lee Ann. 2010. “Shades of Truth and Lies: Interpreting Testimonies of War and Violence.Journal of Peace Research 47, no. 2: 231–41. doi: 10.1177/0022343309353097.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
George, Alexander L., and Bennett, Andrew. 2005. Case Studies and Theory Development in the Social Sciences. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press.Google Scholar
Gerring, John. 2007. “Is There a (Viable) Crucial-Case Method?Comparative Political Studies 40, no. 3: 231–53. doi: 10.1177/0010414006290784.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Goldsmith, Jack L., and Eric, A. Posner. 2005. The Limits of International Law. Oxford UK: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Gunasekara, S. L. 2013. “Betrayal Most Foul.” Daily Mirror. September 24. At http://www.dailymirror.lk/article/betrayal-most-foul-35936.html, accessed September 11, 2019.Google Scholar
Hafner-Burton, Emilie M. 2008. “Sticks and Stones: Naming and Shaming the Human Rights Enforcement Problem.International Organization 62, no. 4: 689716. doi: 10.1017/S0020818308080247.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hafner-Burton, Emilie M. 2013. Making Human Rights a Reality. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar
Hafner-Burton, Emilie M., and Ron, James. 2009. “Seeing Double: Human Rights Impact Through Qualitative and Quantitative Eyes.World Politics 61, no. 2 (April): 360401. doi: 10.1017/S0043887109000136.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hafner-Burton, Emilie M., and Tsutsui, Kiyoteru. 2005. “Human Rights in a Globalizing World: The Paradox of Empty Promises.American Journal of Sociology 110, no. 5: 1373–411. doi: 10.1086/428442.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Harrison, Frances. 2013. Still Counting the Dead: Survivors of Sri Lanka’s Hidden War. London, UK: Portobello Books.Google Scholar
Hathaway, Oona A. 2002. “Do Human Rights Treaties Make a Difference?Yale Law Journal 111, no. 8: 19352042. At https://www.yalelawjournal.org/article/do-human-rights-treaties-make-a-difference, accessed September 24, 2019.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hathaway, Oona A. 2007. “Why Do Countries Commit to Human Rights Treaties?Journal of Conflict Resolution 51, no. 4: 588621. doi: 10.1177/0022002707303046.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hawkins, Darren, and Jacoby, Wade. 2010. “Partial Compliance: A Comparison of the European and Inter-American Courts of Human Rights.Journal of International Law and International Relations 6, no. 1: 3586. At https://heinonline.org/HOL/P?h=hein.journals/jilwirl6&i=43, accessed September 24, 2019.Google Scholar
Hillebrecht, Courtney. 2009. “Rethinking Compliance: The Challenges and Prospects of Measuring Compliance with International Human Rights Tribunals.Journal of Human Rights Practice 1, no. 3: 362–79. doi: 10.1093/jhuman/hup018.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hillebrecht, Courtney. 2014. “The Power of Human Rights Tribunals: Compliance with the European Court of Human Rights and Domestic Policy Change.European Journal of International Relations 20, no. 4: 1100–23. doi: 10.1177/1354066113508591.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Human Rights Watch. 2009. “Sri Lanka: Urgently Evacuate Civilians.” March 4. At https://www.hrw.org/news/2009/03/04/sri-lanka-urgently-evacuate-civilians, accessed August 21, 2019.Google Scholar
Human Rights Watch. 2011. “Sri Lanka: Report Fails to Advance Accountability.” December 16. At https://www.hrw.org/news/2011/12/16/sri-lanka-report-fails-advance-accountability, accessed August 30, 2019.Google Scholar
Human Rights Watch. 2012a. “UN Rights Council: Sri Lanka Vote a Strong Message for Justice.” March 22. At https://www.hrw.org/news/2012/03/22/un-rights-council-sri-lanka-vote-strong-message-justice, accessed August 30, 2019.Google Scholar
Human Rights Watch. 2012b. “Sri Lanka: Army Inquiry a Delaying Tactic.” February 15. At https://www.hrw.org/news/2012/02/15/sri-lanka-army-inquiry-delaying-tactic, accessed August 30, 2019.Google Scholar
Human Rights Watch. 2013. “Sri Lanka: No Justice in Aid Worker Massacre.” July 31. At https://www.hrw.org/news/2013/07/31/sri-lanka-no-justice-aid-worker-massacre, accessed August 30, 2019.Google Scholar
Human Rights Watch. 2015. “The Blood of People Who Don’t Cooperate: Continuing Torture and Mistreatment of Detainees in Bahrain.” November 22. At https://www.hrw.org/report/2015/11/22/blood-people-who-dont-cooperate/continuing-torture-and-mistreatment-detainees, accessed August 30, 2019.Google Scholar
International Alert. 2013. “Dynamics and Trends of Foreign Aid in Sri Lanka.” August. At https://www.international-alert.org/publications/dynamics-and-trends-foreign-aid-sri-lanka, accessed August 30, 2019.Google Scholar
International Crisis Group. 2011. “Statement on the Report of Sri Lanka’s Lessons Learnt and Reconciliation Commission.” December 22. At https://www.crisisgroup.org/asia/south-asia/sri-lanka/statement-report-sri-lankas-lessons-learnt-and-reconciliation-commission, accessed August 30, 2019.Google Scholar
International Crisis Group. 2012. “Sri Lanka’s North I - The Denial of Minority Rights.” March 16, 2012. At https://www.crisisgroup.org/asia/south-asia/sri-lanka/sri-lanka-s-north-i-denial-minority-rights, accessed August 30, 2019.Google Scholar
International Crisis Group. 2013. “Sri Lanka’s Authoritarian Turn: The Need for International Action.” February 20. At https://www.crisisgroup.org/asia/south-asia/sri-lanka/sri-lanka-s-authoritarian-turn-need-international-action, accessed August 30, 2019.Google Scholar
Krain, Matthew. 2012. “J’accuse! Does Naming and Shaming Perpetrators Reduce the Severity of Genocides or Politicides?International Studies Quarterly 56, no. 3: 574–89. doi: 10.1111/j.1468-2478.2012.00732.x.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Krasner, Stephen D. 1993. “Sovereignty, Regimes, and Human Rights.” In Rittberger, Volker and Mayer, Peter, eds., Regime Theory and International Relations. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Krasner, Stephen D. 1999. Sovereignty: Organized Hypocrisy. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Krebs, Ronald R., and Jackson, Patrick Thaddeus. 2007. “Twisting Tongues and Twisting Arms: The Power of Political Rhetoric.European Journal of International Relations 13, no. 1: 3566. doi: 10.1177/1354066107074284.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kumar, Vinay. 2012. “UNHRC Resolution: Govt. to Keep in Mind Implications.” The Hindu. March 15. At https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/unhrc-resolution-govt-to-keep-in-mind-implications/article2995433.ece, accessed September 11, 2019.Google Scholar
Kunanayakam, Tamara H. E. 2011. “Response to Media Queries on the Amnesty International Report on the LLRC.” September 10. At http://www.lankamission.org/human-rights-humanitarian-affairs/591-sri-lanka-ambassador-tamara-kunanayakam-responds-to-media-queries-on-the-ai-report-on-the-llrc-2.html, accessed September 30, 2019.Google Scholar
Landman, Todd. 2005. “The Political Science of Human Rights.British Journal of Political Science 35, no. 3: 549–72. doi: 10.1017/S0007123405000293.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lebovic, James H., and Voeten, Erik. 2009. “The Cost of Shame: International Organizations and Foreign Aid in the Punishing of Human Rights Violators.Journal of Peace Research 46, no. 1: 7997. doi: 10.1177/0022343308098405.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lessons Learnt and Reconciliation Commission. 2011. Final Report. November 15. At http://slembassyusa.org/downloads/LLRC-REPORT.pdf, accessed August 30, 2019.Google Scholar
Lynch, Marc. 2008. “Lie to Me: Sanctions on Iraq, Moral Argument, and the International Politics of Hypocrisy.” In Price, Richard, ed., Moral Limit and Possibility in World Politics. New York, N.Y.: Cambridge University Press: 165–96.Google Scholar
Mahoney, James. 2010. “After KKV: The New Methodology of Qualitative Research.World Politics 62, no. 1 (January): 120–47. doi: 10.1017/S0043887109990220.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McGowan, William. 2012. “Buddhists Behaving Badly.” Foreign Affairs. August 2. At https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/asia/2012-08-02/buddhists-behaving-badly, accessed August 30, 2019.Google Scholar
Morrow, James D. 2007. “When Do States Follow the Laws of War?American Political Science Review 101, no. 3: 559–72. doi: 10.1017/S000305540707027X.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mitchell, Ronald B. 2007. “Compliance Theory: Compliance, Effectiveness, and Behavior Change in International Environmental Law.” In Brunée, Jutta, Bodansky, Daniel, and Hey, Ellen, eds., Oxford Handbook of Environmental Law. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press: 893921.Google Scholar
Murdie, Amanda M., and Davis, David R.. 2012. “Shaming and Blaming: Using Events Data to Assess the Impact of Human Rights INGOs.International Studies Quarterly 56, no. 1: 116. doi: 10.1111/j.1468-2478.2011.00694.x.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nadarajah, Suthaharan. 2018. “The Tamil Proscriptions: Identities, Legitimacies and Situated Practices.Terrorism and Political Violence 30, no. 2: 278–97. doi: 10.1080/09546553.2018.1432214.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nasaw, Daniel. 2009. “Sri Lanka Blasts US Report on Human Rights Abuses.” Guardian. October 22. At https://www.theguardian.com/world/2009/oct/22/sri-lanka-state-department-report, accessed August 30, 2019.Google Scholar
Neumayer, Eric. 2005. “Do International Human Rights Treaties Improve Respect for Human Rights?Journal of Conflict Resolution 49, no. 6: 925–53. doi: 10.1177/0022002705281667.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Parkinson, Sarah Elizabeth. 2013. “Organizing Rebellion: Rethinking High-Risk Mobilization and Social Networks in War.American Political Science Review 107, no. 3: 418–32. doi: 10.1017/S0003055413000208.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Permanent Mission of Sri Lanka to the UN Office at Geneva. 2014. Comments received from the Permanent Mission of Sri Lanka. A/HRC/25/G/9. February 24. At http://ap.ohchr.org/Documents/E/HRC/c_gov/A_HRC_25_G_9_AEV.doc, accessed August 30, 2019.Google Scholar
Petrova, Margarita H. 2016. “Rhetorical Entrapment and Normative Enticement: How the United Kingdom Turned from Spoiler into Champion of the Cluster Munition Ban.International Studies Quarterly 60, no. 3: 387–99. doi: 10.1093/isq/sqv013.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Press Trust of India. 2011. “Sri Lanka Rejects Demand for International Probe into War Crimes.” December 14. At https://www.ndtv.com/world-news/srilankan-president-mahinda-rajapaksa-rejects-demand-for-probe-into-war-crimes-541324, accessed August 30, 2019.Google Scholar
Rajapaksa, Mahinda. 2012. “Budget Speech: 2013.” November 8. At http://www.treasury.gov.lk/web/guest/budget-speeches, accessed September 11, 2019.Google Scholar
Rajapaksa, Mahinda. 2013a. “Proclamations & c., by the President.” Gazette of the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka, no. 1823/42. August 15. At http://old.satp.org/satporgtp/countries/shrilanka/document/papers/PCI.pdf, accessed September 11, 2019.Google Scholar
Rajapaksa, Mahinda. 2013b. “Address by His Excellency the President Mahinda Rajapaksa at the Sixty-Eighth Session of the United Nations General Assembly.” September 24. At https://gadebate.un.org/sites/default/files/gastatements/68/LK_en.pdf, accessed September 29, 2019.Google Scholar
Ramos, Howard, Ron, James, and Oskar, N. T. Thoms. 2007. “Shaping the Northern Media’s Human Rights Coverage, 1986–2000.Journal of Peace Research 44, no. 4: 385406. doi: 10T1177/0022343307078943.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Republic of South Africa, Department of Finance. 1995. “Budget Review 15 March 1995.” At http://www.treasury.gov.za/documents/national%20budget/Budget%20Review%201995.pdf, accessed September 29, 2019.Google Scholar
Reuters. 2015a. “Thailand Says Wraps Up Trafficking Probe, Rights Groups Sceptical.” June 23. At https://www.reuters.com/article/us-asia-migrants-thailand/thailand-says-wraps-up-trafficking-probe-rights-groups-sceptical-idUSKBN0P30L720150623, accessed August 30, 2019.Google Scholar
Reuters 2015b. “Group of 32 Countries Criticizes Bahrain’s Human Rights Record.” September 14. At https://www.reuters.com/article/us-bahrain-rights/group-of-32-countries-criticizes-bahrains-human-rights-record-idUSKCN0RE1L120150914, accessed October 5, 2019.Google Scholar
Risse, Thomas, Stephen, C. Ropp, Sikkink, Kathryn, eds. 1999. The Power of Human Rights: International Norms and Domestic Change. New York, N.Y.: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Samaranayake, Nilanthi. 2011. “Are Sri Lanka’s Relations with China Deepening? An Analysis of Economic, Military, and Diplomatic Data.Asian Security 7, no. 2: 119–46. doi: 10.1080/14799855.2011.581603.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Samarasinghe, Mahinda. 2011. Statement of Sri Lanka. UNHRC, 18th Regular Session. September 12.Google Scholar
Samarasinghe, Mahinda. 2012a. Statement of Sri Lanka. High Level Segment. UNHRC, 19th Regular Session. February 27.Google Scholar
Samarasinghe, Mahinda. 2012b. Statement of Sri Lanka. UNHRC, 19th Regular Session. March 22.Google Scholar
Samarasinghe, Mahinda. 2013. Statement of Sri Lanka. UNHRC, 22nd Regular Session. March 21.Google Scholar
Schimmelfennig, Frank. 2001. “The Community Trap: Liberal Norms, Rhetorical Action, and the Eastern Enlargement of the European Union.International Organization 55, no. 1: 4780. doi: 10.1162/002081801551414.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Senewiratne, Kshenuka. 2011. Statement of Sri Lanka on the Statement of the High Commissioner for Human Rights Navanethem Pillay. UNHRC, 17th Regular Session. May 30.Google Scholar
Sengupta, Somini. 2008. “Take Aid From China and Take a Pass on Human Rights.” New York Times. March 9. At https://www.nytimes.com/2008/03/09/weekinreview/09sengupta.html, accessed August 30, 2019.Google Scholar
Simmons, Beth A. 2013. “From Ratification to Compliance: Quantitative Evidence on the Spiral Model.” In Risse, Thomas, Ropp, Stephen C., and Sikkink, Kathryn, eds., The Persistent Power of Human Rights: From Commitment to Compliance. New York, N.Y.: Cambridge University Press: 4359.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Smith-Cannoy, Heather. 2012. Insincere Commitments: Human Rights Treaties, Abusive States, and Citizen Activism. Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press.Google Scholar
Sooka, Yasmin. 2013. “The Empty Findings of Sri Lanka’s Military Court of Inquiry.” Groundviews. April 11. At https://groundviews.org/2013/04/11/the-empty-findings-of-sri-lankas-military-court-of-inquiry/, accessed August 30, 2019.Google Scholar
Sri Lanka Army. 2011. “Second National Victory Day Anniversary Celebrations Honour Invaluable Ranaviru Sacrifices.” May 27. At https://www.army.lk/news/second-national-victory-day-anniversary-celebrations-honour-invaluable-ranaviru-sacrifices, accessed August 30, 2019.Google Scholar
Sri Lanka Army Media Unit. 2012. “Army Commander-Appointed Court of Inquiry Probing into LLRC Report Observations in Progress.” February 16. At https://www.army.lk/news/army-commander-appointed-court-inquiry-probing-llrc-report-observations-progress-0, accessed August 30, 2019.Google Scholar
Sri Lanka Army Media Unit. 2013. “LLRC Observations Cleared; Army Commander Hands Over Court of Inquiry Report to Secretary Defence.” April 10. At https://www.army.lk/news/llrc-observations-cleared-army-commander-hands-over-court-inquiry-report-secretary-defence, accessed August 30, 2019.Google Scholar
Sri Lanka Ministry of Defense. 2011. “Humanitarian Operation Factual Analysis July 2006-May 2009.” July. At http://slembassyusa.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/08/Sri-Lankan-Humanitarian-Operation-Factual-Analysis.pdf, accessed August 30, 2019.Google Scholar
Sri Lanka Ministry of External Affairs. 2010. “Statement on the Appointment of the Sri Lanka Panel of Experts by the Secretary General of the United Nations.” June 23.Google Scholar
Sri Lanka Ministry of External Affairs. 2011. “Minister of External Affairs Briefs Diplomatic Community on Darusman Report.” April 28.Google Scholar
Sri Lanka Ministry of Finance. 2010. “2010 Pre-Election Budgetary Position Report.” March 1. At http://www.treasury.gov.lk/docs/pressrelease/preElection-budgetary-2010.pdf, accessed December 15, 2018.Google Scholar
Sri Lanka Ministry of Finance. 2012. “Estimate 2013: 4.2 Summary of Expenditure by Programme.” At http://www.treasury.gov.lk/web/guest/budget-estimates-2013, accessed August 30, 2019.Google Scholar
Sri Lanka Ministry of Foreign Affairs. 2009. “GOSL Reaction on US State Department Report to the US Congress on Sri Lanka.” October 22.Google Scholar
Sunday Times. 2014. “Satellite on Reverse Orbit.” July 27. At http://www.sundaytimes.lk/140727/columns/satellite-on-reverse-orbit-108637.html, accessed August 30, 2019.Google Scholar
Sunday Times. 2015. “Rs. 400 m Spent on Foreign Advisors for Domestic HR Inquiry.” February 15. At http://www.sundaytimes.lk/150215/columns/rs-400-m-spent-on-foreign-advisors-for-domestic-hr-inquiry-135809.html, accessed August 30, 2019.Google Scholar
Thottam, Jyoti. 2009. “The Man Who Tamed the Tamil Tigers.” Time. July 13. At http://content.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,1910095,00.html, accessed August 30, 2019.Google Scholar
Times of India. 2014. “War Crimes: New UN Probe Puts Pressure on Sri Lanka.” June 30. At http://in.newshub.org/war-crimes-new-un-probe-puts-pressure-sri-lanka-1656777.html, accessed August 30, 2019.Google Scholar
UK Foreign and Commonwealth Office. 2012. “Foreign Office Minister Responds to Report on the Conflict in Sri Lanka.” January 12. At https://www.gov.uk/government/news/foreign-office-minister-responds-to-report-on-the-conflict-in-sri-lanka, accessed August 30, 2019.Google Scholar
UN Human Rights Council. 2009. “A/HRC/S-11/1: Assistance to Sri Lanka in the Promotion and Protection of Human Rights.” May 27. At https://www.ohchr.org/Documents/HRBodies/HRCouncil/SpecialSession/Session11/S-11-1_en.doc, accessed August 30, 2019.Google Scholar
UN Human Rights Council. 2013. “A/HRC/RES/22/1: Promoting Reconciliation and Accountability in Sri Lanka.” March 21. At http://ap.ohchr.org/documents/dpage_e.aspx?si=A/HRC/RES/22/1, accessed September 11, 2019.Google Scholar
UN Human Rights Council. 2014. “A/HRC/RES/25/1: Promoting Reconciliation and Accountability in Sri Lanka.” March 27. At http://ap.ohchr.org/documents/dpage_e.aspx?si=A/HRC/RES/25/1, accessed September 11, 2019.Google Scholar
UN Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights. 2012. “Briefing Note on Sri Lanka/Human Rights Defenders.” March 23.Google Scholar
US Delegation to the Human Rights Council. 2012. “Statement by Ambassador Eileen Chamberlain Donahoe: Introduction of Draft Resolution L.2 on Promoting Reconciliation and Accountability in Sri Lanka.” Human Rights Council, 19th Regular Session. March 22. At https://geneva.usmission.gov/2012/03/22/sri-lank/, accessed August 30, 2019.Google Scholar
US Department of State. 2009. “Report to Congress on Incidents during the Recent War in Sri Lanka.” October 22. At https://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/4792D63B35FAD909492576580005B2E2-Full_Report.pdf, accessed August 30, 2019.Google Scholar
US Department of State. 2010. “Report to Congress on Measures Taken by the Government of Sri Lanka and International Bodies to Investigate Incidents During the Recent Conflict in Sri Lanka and Evaluating the Effectiveness of Such Efforts.” August 11. At https://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/5A2124DDD319C88B8525777C00742E59-Full_Report.pdf, accessed August 30, 2019.Google Scholar
US Department of State. 2011. Daily Press Briefing. December 19. At https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/prs/dpb/2011/12/178982.htm, accessed August 30, 2019.Google Scholar
US Department of State, Bureau of Economic and Business Affairs. 2013. “2013 Investment Climate—Sri Lanka.” April 19. At https://2009-2017.state.gov/e/eb/rls/othr/ics/2013/204735.htm, accessed August 30, 2019.Google Scholar
US Mission to the United Nations. 2010. “Statement by US Ambassador Susan E. Rice on Sri Lanka’s Announcement of a Commission on Lessons Learned and Reconciliation.” May 10.Google Scholar
US Senate Committee on Foreign Relations. 2009. “Sri Lanka: Recharting US Strategy after the War.” 111th Congress: First Session. December 7. At https://www.foreign.senate.gov/imo/media/doc/SRI.pdf, accessed August 30, 2019.Google Scholar
Vinjamuri, Leslie. 2017. “Human Rights Backlash.” In Hopgood, Stephen, Snyder, Jack, and Vinjamuri, Leslie, eds., Human Rights Futures. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press: 114–34.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vreeland, James. 2008. “Political Institutions and Human Rights: Why Dictatorships Enter into the United Nations Convention against Torture.International Organization 62, no. 1: 65101. doi: 10.1017/S002081830808003X.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Wijesinha, Rajiva. 2009. “Arbitrary Execution by Philip Alston.” Daily News. September 2. At http://archives.dailynews.lk/2009/09/02/fea03.asp, accessed August 30, 2019.Google Scholar