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² For a fascinating report on the return of “counterinsurgency” to the policy lexicon, see Peter Maass, “Professor Nagl's War,” New York Times Magazine, January 11, 2004.

³ For a middecade survey, see David, Steven R., “Internal War: Causes and Cures,” World Politics 49 (July 1997)CrossRefGoogle Scholar. For “A Review of Recent Advances and Future Directions in the Literature on Civil War,” Defense and Peace Economics 13, no. 2 (2002)Google Scholar; updates, see Nicholas Sambanis, and the special issue of International Studies Review 5 (December 2003).

⁴ See Licklider, Roy, “The Consequences of Negotiated Settlements in Civil Wars, 1945-1993,” American Political Science Review 89, no. 3 (1995)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; idem, “Early Returns: Results of the First Wave of Statistical Studies of Civil War Termination,” Civil Wars 1, no. 3 (1998)Google Scholar; Elbadawi, Ibrahim and Sambanis, Nicholas, “How Much War Will We See? Explaining the Prevalence of Civil War,” Journal of Conflict Resolution 46 (June 2002)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; and the special issue of the Journal ofConflict Resolution 46 (February 2002), edited by Paul Collier and Nicholas Sambanis and based on the World Bank's civil war modeling project.

⁵ See Stedman, Stephen John, Peacemaking in Civil War: International Mediation in Zimbabwe, 1974-1980 (Boulder, Colo.: Lynne Rienner, 1991)Google Scholar; Licklider, Roy, ed., Stopping the Killing: How Civil Wars End (New York: New York University Press, 1993)Google Scholar; Zartman, I. William, ed., Elusive Peace: Negotiating an End to Civil Wars (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution Press, 1995)Google Scholar; Esman, Milton J. and Telhami, Shibley, eds., International Organizations and Ethnic Conflict (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1995)Google Scholar; Brown, Michael E., ed., The International Dimensions of Internal Conflict (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1996)Google Scholar; Walter, Barbara F. and Snyder, Jack, eds., Civil Wars, Insecurity, and Intervention (New York: Columbia University Press, 1999)Google Scholar; Kaufmann, Chaim, “Possible and Impossible Solutions to Ethnic Civil Wars,” International Security 20, no. 4 (1996)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Walter, Barbara F., Committing to Peace: The Successful Settlement of Civil Wars (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2002)Google Scholar; Stedman, Stephen John, Rothchild, Donald, and Cousens, Elizabeth M., eds., Ending Civil Wars: The Implementation ofPeace Agreements (Boulder, Colo.: Lynne Rienner, 2002)Google Scholar.

⁶ This trend began with an influential article by Posen, Barry, “The Security Dilemma and Ethnic Conflict,” Survival 35, No. 1 (1993)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁷ Several authors have questioned some of the key assumptions of the early 1990s security studies literature, such as the power of ascriptive identities in civil wars and the distinction between “old” and “new” forms of political violence. See, for example, Mueller, John, “The Banality of ‘Ethnic War,’” International Security 25 (Summer 2000)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Sambanis, Nicholas, “Partition as a Solution to Ethnic War: An Empirical Critique of the Theoretical Literature,” World Politics 52 (July 2000)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Kalyvas, Stathis N., “‘New’ and ‘Old’ Civil Wars: A Valid Distinction?” World Politics 54 (October 2001)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Berdal, Mats and Malone, David M., eds., Greed and Grievance: Economic Agendas in Civil Wars (Boulder, Colo.: Lynne Rienner, 2000)Google Scholar; Paul Collier and Anke Hoeffler, “Greed and Grievance in Civil War” (Washington, D.C.: World Bank, January 2001); Kaufman, Stuart, Modern Hatreds: The Symbolic Politics of Ethnic War (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 2001)Google Scholar; King, Charles, “The Benefits of Ethnic War: Understanding Eurasia's Unrecognized States,” World Politics 53 (July 2001)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Fearon, James D. and Laitin, David D., “Ethnicity, Insurgency, and Civil War,” American Political Science Review 97 (February 2003)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁸ These are the labels that Varshney uses (p. 23), but for similar surveys, see Kupchan, Charles A., ed., Nationalism and Nationalities in the New Europe (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1995)Google Scholar; Walter (fn. 5); Kaufman (fn. 7); and Chandra, Kanchan, “Introduction: Constructivist Findings and Their Non-Incorporation,” APSA-CP: Newsletter of the Organized Section in Comparative Politics APSA 12 (Winter 2001)Google Scholar. Other terms include primordialism (for essentialism), modernism (for instrumentalism), structuralism (for institutionalism), and postmodernism (for constructivism). The middle two are sometimes made subsets of constructivism.

⁹ Geertz's edited volume is usually given as the essentialist urtext; , Geertz, ed., Old Societies and New States: The Quest for Modernity in Asia and Africa (New York: Free Press, 1963)Google Scholar. Most statistical analyses of ethnic violence are implicitly essentialist in the way that data are coded. See, for example, Sambanis, Nicholas, “Do Ethnic and Non-Ethnic Civil Wars Have the Same Causes? A Theoretical and Empirical Enquiry (Part 1),” Journal of Conflict Resolution 45 (June 2001)CrossRefGoogle Scholar. For a spirited defense of the essentialist line, see Evera, Stephen Van, “Primordialism Lives!” APSA-CP: Newsletter of the Organized Section in Comparative Politics of the APSA 12 (Winter 2001)Google Scholar.

¹⁰ , Gellner, Nations and Nationalism (Oxford: Blackwell, 1983)Google Scholar; , Smith, National Identity (London: Penguin, 1991)Google Scholar; , Anderson, Imagined Communities, 2nd ed. (New York: Verso, 1991)Google Scholar. For a survey of the development of nationalism studies, see King, Charles, “Nations and Nationalism in British Political Studies,” in Barry, Brian, Brown, A. H., and Hayward, Jack, eds., The Study of Politics: The Twentieth Century British Contribution (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999)Google Scholar.

¹¹ A reassessment of Gellner and his relationship to other theorists is provided by Hall, John A., ed., The State of the Nation: Ernest Gellner and the Theory of Nationalism (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

¹² For representative statements of the “new wars” position, see Enzensberger, Hans Magnus, Civil Wars: From L.A, to Bosnia (New York: New Press, 1994)Google Scholar; Huntington, Samuel P., The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1996)Google Scholar; and Kaldor, Mary, New and Old Wars: Organized Violence in a Global Era (Stanford, Calif: Stanford University Press, 1999)Google Scholar. For an important critique, see Kalyvas (fn. 7).

¹³ , Horowitz, Ethnic Groups in Conflict (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985)Google Scholar.

¹⁴ For recent surveys, see Benford, Robert D., “Framing Processes and Social Movements: An Overview and Assessment,” Annual Review of Sociology 26 (August 2000)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Polletta, Francesca and Jasper, James M., “Collective Identity and Social Movements,” Annual Review of Sociology 27 (August 2001)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Edelman, Marc, “Social Movements: Changing Paradigms and Forms of Politics,” Annual Review ofAnthropology 30 (October 2001)Google Scholar; and Mazower, Mark, “Violence and the State in the Twentieth Century,” American Historical Review 107 (May 2003)Google Scholar; Goodwin, Jeff and Jasper, James M., eds., Rethinking Social Movements: Structure, Meaning, and Emotion (Lanham, Md.: Rowman and Little-field, 2004)Google Scholar.

¹⁵ The classic text is Bon, Gustave Le, The Crowd: A Study of the Popular Mind (reprint; Atlanta: Cherokee Publishing, 1982)Google Scholar, but for a survey of this literature, see McClelland, J. S., The Crowd and the Mob: From Plato to Canetti (London: Unwin Hyman, 1989)Google Scholar. For other approaches, see Kornhauser, William, The Politics of Mass Society (Glencoe, Ill.: Free Press, 1959)Google Scholar; Smelser, Neil J., Theory ofCol-lective Behavior (Glencoe, Ill.: Free Press, 1963)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Gurr, Ted Robert, Why Men Rebel (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1970)Google Scholar.

¹⁶ See Tilly, Charles, From Mobilization to Revolution (Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1978)Google Scholar; McAdam, Doug et al. , eds., Comparative Perspectives on Social Movements: Political Opportunities, Mobilizing Structures, and Cultural Framings (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Tarrow, Sidney, Power in Movement: Social Movements and Contentious Politics, 2nd ed. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; McAdam, Doug, Political Process and the Development of Black Insurgency, 1930-1970, 2nd ed. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1999)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Buechler, Steven M., Social Movements in Advanced Capitalism: The Political Economy and Cultural Construction of Social Activism (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000)Google Scholar; Barkey, Karen and Rossem, Ronan Van, “Networks of Contention: Villages and Regional Structure in the Seventeenth-Century Ottoman Empire,” American Journal of Sociology 102 (March 1997)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

¹⁷ See Aminzade, Ronald et al. , Silence and Voice in the Study of Contentious Politics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; McAdam, Doug et al. , Dynamics of Contention (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Tilly, Charles, The Politics of Collective Violence (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

¹⁸ Horowitz, Donald L., The Deadly Ethnic Riot (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001)Google Scholar, chap. 3.

¹⁹ Patterning can be seen in two unusual types of collective violence, one in which the victim is single and the perpetrators multiple (lynchings), another in which the perpetrator is single and the victims multiple (suicide terrorism). Pape, Robert A., “The Strategic Logic of Suicide Terrorism,” American Political Science Review 97 (August 2003)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; Tolnay, Stewart E. and Beck, E. M., A Festival of Violence: An Analysis of Southern Lynchings, 1882-1930 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1995)Google Scholar.

²⁰ Horowitz (fn. 18), 266.

²¹ Ibid., 366.

²² On the role of violent contexts and norms, see Gross, Jan T., Revolution from Abroad: The Soviet Conquest of Poland's Western Ukraine and Western Belorussia (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1988)Google Scholar; and Snyder, Timothy, The Reconstruction of Nations: Poland, Ukraine, Lithuania, and Belarus, 1569-1999 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2003)Google Scholar. Gross's widely read Neighbors: The Destruction of the Jewish Community in Jedivabne, Poland (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2001)Google Scholar examines the power of context in a particular instance of violence. For a critical rejoinder, see Polonsky, Antony and Michlic, Joanna B., eds., The Neighbors Respond: The Controversy over the Jedivabne Massacre in Poland (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2003)Google Scholar.

²³ Tambiah, Stanley J., Leveling Crowds: Ethnonationalist Conflicts and Collective Violence in South Asia (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996)Google Scholar.

²⁴ For a fascinating analysis of these processes in eastern Europe, see Kenney, Padraic, A Carnival of Revolution: Central Europe, 1989 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2002)Google Scholar.

²⁵ Bunce, Valerie, Subversive Institutions: The Design and Destruction of Socialism and the State (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

²⁶ There is now an entire literature on the nostalgia of ethnic peace. See, for example, Donia, Robert J. and Fine, John V. A. Jr., Bosnia and Hercegovina: A Tradition Betrayed (New York: Columbia University Press, 1994)Google Scholar; Menocal, Maria Rosa, The Ornament of the World: How Muslims, Jews, and Christians Created a Culture of Tolerance in Medieval Spain (Boston: Little, Brown, 2002)Google Scholar; Davies, Norman and Moorhouse, Roger, Microcosm: A Portrait of a Central European City (London: Jonathan Cape, 2002)Google Scholar.

²⁷ , Laitin, “Comparative Politics: The State of the Discipline,” in Katznelson, Ira and Milner, Helen V., eds., Political Science: The State of the Discipline (New York: W. W. Norton, 2002)Google Scholar.

²⁸ , Wood, Insurgent Collective Action and Civil War in El Salvador (New York: Oxford University Press, 2003)Google Scholar; Kalyvas, “The Logic of Violence in Civil War” (Book manuscript).

²⁹ , Brubaker and , Laitin, “Ethnic and Nationalist Violence,” Annual Review of Sociology 24 (August 1998)Google Scholar.

³⁰ Kalyvas, Stathis N., “The Paradox of Terrorism in Civil War,” Journal of Etbia 8, no. 1 (2004)Google Scholar.

³¹ For a recent effort to tackle this issue, see Straus, Scott, “The Order of Genocide: Race, Power, and War in Rwanda” (Ph.D. diss., University of California, Berkeley, 2004)Google Scholar.

³² Boehm, Christopher, Blood Revenge: The Anthropology ofFeuding in Montenegro and Other Tribal Societies (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1984)Google Scholar.

³³ Horowitz (fn. 18), 56; , Kalyvas, “The Ontology of ‘Political Violence’: Action and Identity in Civil Wars,” Perspectives on Politics 1 (September 2003)Google Scholar.

³⁴ The best recent application of this technique is Brass, Paul R., Theft of an Idol: Text and Context in the Representation of Collective Violence (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1997)Google Scholar. A brilliant model—although one involving the killing of cats rather than people—is Darnton, Robert, “Workers Revolt: The Great Cat Massacre of the Rue Saint-Severin,” in , Darnton, The Great Cat Massacre (New York: Vintage, 1984)Google Scholar. See also Kakar, Sudhir, The Colors of Violence: Cultural Identities, Religion, and Conflict (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996)Google Scholar; and Malkki, Liisa H., Purity and Exile: Violence, Memory, and National Cosmology among Hutu Refugees in Tanzania (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995)Google Scholar.

³⁵ Horowitz (fn. 18), 478.

³⁶ For further exploration of this point, see Brubaker, Rogers and Cooper, Frederick, “Beyond ‘Identity,’” Theory and Society 29, no. 1 (2000)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

³⁷ Beck, E. M. and Tolnay, Stewart E., “When Race Didn't Matter: Black and White Mob Violence against Their Own Color,” in Brundage, W. Fitzhugh, ed., Under Sentence ofDeath: Lynching in the South (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1997)Google Scholar.

³⁸ On designing a research project that takes this point into account, see Laitin, David and Posner, Daniel, “The Implications of Constructivism for Constructing Ethnic Fractionalization Indices,” APSA-CP: Newsletter of the Organized Section in Comparative Politics of the APM 12 (Winter 2001)Google Scholar.

³⁹ Varshney, Ashutosh, “Nationalism, Ethnic Conflict, and Rationality,” Perspectives on Politics 1 (March 2003)CrossRefGoogle Scholar.

⁴⁰ , Kalyvas, “The Logic of Violence in Civil Wars,” APSA-CP: Newsletter of the Organized Section in Comparative Politics of the APSA 14 (Spring 2003)Google Scholar.

⁴¹ For examples of applications to specific cases, see Kalyvas, Stathis N., “Wanton and Senseless? The Logic of Massacres in Algeria,” Rationality and Society 11, no. 3 (1999)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; idem, “Red Terror: Leftist Violence during the Occupation,” in Mazower, Mark, ed., After the War Was Over: Reconstructing the Family, Nation, and State in Greece, 1943-1960 (Princeton: Princeton University Press)CrossRefGoogle Scholar; King (fn. 7).

⁴² Kanchan Chandra at MIT has been coordinating a multiple-researcher project looking at precisely these issues. See the project website at web.mit.edu/kchandra/www/caeg/.

⁴³ In one recent tragic example, in January 2004 protestors destroyed several priceless manuscripts at the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute near Bombay, simply because an American researcher had thanked several of the institute's scholars in the acknowledgments of his book. The protestors deemed the book offensive to Hindus. Martha Ann Overland, “Hindu Protestors Attack Prestigious Research Institute in India,” Chronicle of Higher Education, January 23, 2004, A41.

⁴⁴ George, Alexander L. and Bennett, Andrew, Case Studies and Theory Development in the Social Sciences (Cambridge: MIT Press, 2004)Google Scholar; Brady, Henry E. and Collier, David, eds., Rethinking Social Inquiry: Diverse Tools, Shared Standards (Lanham, Md.: Rowman and Littlefield, 2004)Google Scholar.