Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-gvvz8 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-20T21:13:08.511Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Capital and Opposition in Africa: Coalition Building in Multiethnic Societies

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  08 April 2013

Leonardo R. Arriola
Leonardo R. Arriola*
Affiliation:
Department of Political Science at the University of California, Berkeley. Email: larriola@berkeley.edu.
Get access

Abstract

Under what conditions can opposition politicians with ethnic constituencies form electoral coalitions? In Africa's patronage-based political systems, incumbents form coalitions by using state resources to secure the endorsement of politicians from other ethnic groups. Opposition politicians, however, must rely on private resources to do the same. This article presents a political economy theory to explain how the relative autonomy of business from state-controlled capital influences the formation of multiethnic opposition coalitions. It shows that the opposition is unlikely to coalesce across ethnic cleavages where incumbents use their influence over banking and credit to command the political allegiance of business—the largest potential funder of opposition in poor countries. Liberalizing financial reforms, in freeing business to diversify political contributions without fear of reprisal, enable opposition politicians to access the resources needed to mimic the incumbent's pecuniary coalition-building strategy. A binomial logistic regression analysis of executive elections held across Africa between 1990 and 2005 corroborates the theoretical claim: greater financial autonomy for business—as proxied by the number of commercial banks and the provision of credit to the private sector—significantly increases the likelihood of multiethnic opposition coalitions being formed.

Type
Research Article
Information
World Politics , Volume 65 , Issue 2 , April 2013 , pp. 233 - 272
Copyright
Copyright © Trustees of Princeton University 2013

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Acemoglu, Daron, and Robinson, James A.. 2006. Economic Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy. Cambridge, UK.: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Bates, Robert H. 1974. “Ethnic Competition and Modernization in Contemporary Africa.” Comparative Political Studies 6, no. 4: 457–83.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bates, Robert H. 2001. Prosperity and Violence: The Political Economy of Development. New York, N.Y.: W. W. Norton.Google Scholar
Bates, Robert H., and Krueger, Anne O., eds. 1993. Political and Economic Interactions in Economic Policy Reform: Evidence from Eight Countries. Cambridge, Mass.: Blackwell.Google Scholar
Bayart, Jean François. 1989. L'Etat en Afrique: Politique du Ventre [The state in Africa: the politics of the belly]. Paris, France: Fayard.Google Scholar
Beck, Thorsten, Demirguc-Kunt, Asli, and Levine, Ross. 1999. “A New Database on Financial Development and Structure.” Policy Research Working Paper 2146. Washington, D.C.: World Bank.Google Scholar
Beck, Thorsten, Demirguc-Kunt, Asli, and Maksimovic, Vojislav. 2004. “Bank Competition and Access to Finance: International Evidence.” Journal of Money, Credit, and Banking 36, no. 3: 627–48.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Birnir, Jóhanna Kristin. 2007. Ethnicity and Electoral Politics. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Bogaards, Mathijs. 2008. “Dominant Party Systems and Electoral Volatility in Africa.” Party Politics 14, no. 1: 113–30.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Boone, Catherine. 1992. Merchant Capital and the Roots of State Power in Senegal 1930–1985. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brancati, Dawn. 2006. “Decentralization: Fueling the Fire or Dampening the Flames of Ethnic Conflict and Secession?” International Organization 60, no. 3: 651–85.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bratton, Michael. 2008. “Vote Buying and Violence in Nigerian Election Campaigns.” Electoral Studies 27, no. 4: 621–32.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bratton, Michael, and van de Walle, Nicolas. 1997. Democratic Experiments in Africa: Regime Transitions in Comparative Perspective. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brownbridge, Martin. 1998. “Financial Repression & Financial Reform in Uganda.” In Brownbridge, Martin and Harvey, Charles, eds., Banking in Africa: The Impact of Financial Sector Reform since Independence. Trenton, N.J.: Africa World Press.Google Scholar
Brownbridge, Martin, and Gockel, Augustine Fritz. 1998. “The Impact of Financial Sector Policies in Ghana.” In Brownbridge, Martin and Harvey, Charles, eds., Banking in Africa: The Impact of Financial Sector Reform since Independence. Trenton, N.J.: Africa World Press.Google Scholar
Brownbridge, Martin, and Harvey, Charles, eds. 1998. Banking in Africa: The Impact of Financial Sector Reform since Independence. Trenton, N.J.: Africa World Press.Google Scholar
Brownlee, Jason. 2007. Authoritarianism in an Age of Democratization. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Callaghy, Thomas M., and Ravenhill, John, eds. 1993. Hemmed In: Responses to Africa's Economic Decline. New York, N.Y.: Columbia University Press.Google Scholar
Chabal, Patrick, and Daloz, Jean-Pascal. 1999. Africa Works: Disorder as Political Instrument. Oxford, UK: James Currey.Google Scholar
Chandra, Kanchan. 2004a. “Ethnic Parties and Democratic Stability.” Perspectives on Politics 3, no. 2: 235–52.Google Scholar
Chandra, Kanchan. 2004b. Why Ethnic Parties Succeed: Patronage and Ethnic Head Counts in India. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chaudhry, Kiren A. 1997. The Price of Wealth: Economies and Institutions in the Middle East. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press.Google Scholar
Cox, Gary W. 1997. Making Votes Count: Strategic Coordination in the World's Electoral Systems. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dahl, Robert A. 1971. Polyarchy:Participation and Opposition. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Devarajan, Shantayanan, Dollar, David R., and Holmgren, Torgny, eds. 2001. Aid and Reform in Africa: Lessons from Ten Case Studies. Washington, DC: World Bank.Google Scholar
Diamond, Larry. 1996. “Is the Third Wave Over?” Journal of Democracy 7, no. 3: 20–37.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Doe, Lubin. 1995. “Managing Cameroon's Banking Sector—In and Out of Crisis—The Role of the Government.” African Development Review 7, no. 1: 103–66.Google Scholar
Dollar, David, and Svensson, Jakob. 2000. “What Explains the Success or Failure of Structural Adjustment Programmes?” The Economic Journal 110, no. 466: 894–917.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dunning, Thad. 2004. “Conditioning the Effects of Aid: Cold War Politics, Donor Credibility, and Democracy in Africa.” International Organization 58, no. 2: 409–23.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dunning, Thad. 2008. Crude Democracy: Natural Resource Wealth and Political Regimes. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Elkins, Zachary, and Sides, John. 2007. “Can Institutions Build Unity in Multiethnic States?” American Political Science Review 101, no. 4: 693–708.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Epstein, David L., Bates, Robert H., Goldstone, Jack A., Kristensen, Ida, and O'Halloran, Sharyn. 2006. “Democratic Transitions.” American Journal of Political Science 50, no. 3: 551–69.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Europa Publications Limited. 1971–2006. Africa South of the Sahara. London, UK: Europa Publications Ltd.Google Scholar
Fearon, James D. 1999. “Why Ethnic Politics and ‘Pork’ Tend To Go Together.” Paper presented at a MacArthur Foundation conference on ethnic politics and democratic stability, University of Chicago, May 21-23.Google Scholar
Fearon, James D.. 2003. “Ethnic and Cultural Diversity by Country.” Journal of Economic Growth 8, no. 2: 195–222.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ferree, Karen E. 2004. “The Micro-Foundations of Ethnic Voting: Evidence from South Africa.” Afrobarometer Working Paper no. 40. East Lansing, Mich.: Michigan State University.Google Scholar
Fraenkel, Jon, and Grofman, Bernard. 2006. “Does the Alternative Vote Foster Moderation in Ethnically Divided Societies?” Comparative Political Studies 39, no. 5: 623–51.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gatheru, Claire, Muhene, Mugumo, and Riunge, Muniu. 2002. “Wamalwa: My Stand On on Presidential Poll.” The Nation (Nairobi), February 5.Google Scholar
Gelbard, Enrique A., and Leite, Sergio Pereira. 1999. “Measuring Financial Development in Sub-Saharan Africa.” IMF Working Paper no. 99/105. Washington, D.C.: International Monetary Fund.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gerring, John, Bond, Philip, Barndt, William T., and Moreno, Carola. 2005. “Democracy and Economic Growth: A Historical Perspective.” World Politics 57, no. 3 (April): 323–64.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gerschenkron, Alexander. 1962. Economic Backwardness in Historical Perspective. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Gertzel, Cherry, Baylies, Carolyn, and Szeftel, Morris, eds. 1984. The Dynamics of the One-Party State in Zambia. Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press.Google Scholar
Girod, Desha M. 2011. “From Peace to Development: Aid Effectiveness after Civil War.” Manuscript, Georgetown University.Google Scholar
Golder, Sona N. 2006. The Logic of Pre-Electoral Coalition Formation. Columbus, Ohio: Ohio State University Press.Google Scholar
Gulde, Anne-Marie, and Pattillo, Catherine. 2006. “Financial Sector Reform in Sub-Saharan Africa.” The Journal of Social, Political and Economic Studies 31, no. 2: 133–42.Google Scholar
Gulde, Anne-Marie, Pattillo, Catherine, Christensen, Jakob, Carey, Kevin, and Wagh, Smita. 2006. “Sub-Saharan Africa Financial Sector Challenges.” Washington, DC: International Monetary Fund.Google Scholar
Handley, Antoinette. 2008. Business and the State in Africa: Economic Policy-Making in the Neo-Liberal Era. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Herbst, Jeffrey. 1990. “The Structural Adjustment of Politics in Africa.” World Development 18, no. 7: 949–58.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hodges, Tony. 2001. Angola: From Afro-Stalinism to Petro-Diamond Capitalism. Bloomington, Ind.: Indiana University Press.Google Scholar
Honohan, Patrick, and Beck, Thorsten. 2007. Making Finance Work for Africa. Washington, DC: World Bank.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Hopkins, A. G. 1987. “Big Business in African Studies.” Journal of African History 28, no. 1: 119–40.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Horowitz, Donald L. 1985. Ethnic Groups in Conflict. Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Howard, Marc Morje, and Roessler, Philip G.. 2006. “Liberalizing Electoral Outcomes in Competitive Authoritarian Regimes.” American Journal of Political Science 50, no. 2: 365–81.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Humphreys, Macartan, and Bates, Robert H.. 2005. “Political Institutions and Economic Policies: Lessons from Africa.” British Journal of Political Science 35, no. 3: 403–28.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Iliffe, John. 1983. The Emergence of African Capitalism. Minneapolis, Minn.: University of Minnesota Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jensen, Nathan, and Wantchekon, Leonard. 2004. “Resource Wealth and Political Regimes in Africa.” Comparative Political Studies 37, no. 7: 816–41.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kago, Tony. 2002. “Wamalwa Back to Brink of Bankruptcy.” The Nation (Nairobi), March 20.Google Scholar
Katumanga, Musambayi. 2005. “Constructing the Abaluhya Unity.” In Maupeu, Hervé, Katumanga, Musambayi, and Mitullah, Winnie, eds., The Moi Succession. Nairobi, Kenya: Transafrica Press.Google Scholar
Keefer, Philip. 2007. “Clientelism, Credibility, and the Policy Choices of Young Democracies.” American Journal of Political Science 51, no. 4: 804–21.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
King, Gary, Tomz, Michael, and Wittenberg, Jason. 2000. “Making the Most of Statistical Analyses: Improving Interpretation and Presentation.” American Journal of Political Science 44, no. 2: 347–61.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
King, Robert G., and Levine, Ross. 1993. “Finance and Growth: Schumpeter Might Be Right.” Quarterly Journal of Economics 108, no. 3: 717–37.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kuenzi, Michelle, and Lambright, Gina. 2001. “Party System Institutionalization in 30 African Countries.” Party Politics 7, no. 4: 437–68.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Laeven, Luc, and Valencia, Fabian. 2008. “Systemic Banking Crises: A New Database.” IMF Working Paper no. 08/224. Washington, DC: International Monetary Fund.Google Scholar
La Porta, Rafael, Lopez-de-Silanes, Florencio, and Shleifer, Andrei. 2002. “Government Ownership of Banks.” The Journal of Finance 62, no. 1: 265–301.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lemarchand, Rene. 1972. “Political Clientelism and Ethnicity in Tropical Africa: Competing Solidarities in Nation-Building.” American Political Science Review 66, no. 1: 68–90.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Levi, Margaret. 1988. Of Rule and Revenue. Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Levine, Ross, Loayza, Norman, and Beck, Thorsten. 2000. “Financial Intermediation and Growth: Causality and Causes.” Journal of Monetary Economics 46, no. 1: 31–77.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Levitsky, Steven, and Way, Lucan A.. 2002. “The Rise of Competitive Authoritarianism.” Journal of Democracy 13, no. 2: 51–65.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lewis, Peter. 1996. “Economic Reform and Political Transition in Africa: The Quest for a Politics of Development.” World Politics 49, no. 1 (October): 92–129.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lijphart, Arend. 1969. “Consociational Democracy.” World Politics 21, no. 2 (January): 207–25.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lijphart, Arend. 1977. Democracy in Plural Societies. New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press.Google Scholar
Lindberg, Staffan I. 2006. Democracy and Elections in Africa. Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lust-Okar, Ellen. 2005. Structuring Conflict in the Arab World: Incumbents, Opponents, and Institutions. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Magaloni, Beatriz. 2006. Voting for Autocracy: Hegemonic Party Survival and its Demise in Mexico. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Marshall, Monty G., and Jaggers, Keith. 2009. “Polity IV Project.” University of Maryland, College Park.Google Scholar
Mbembe, Achille. 1993. “Épilogue: Crise de légitimité, restauration autoritaire et déliquescence de l'État.” In Geschiere, Peter and Konings, Piet, eds., Itinéraires d'Accumulation au Cameroun [Routes to accumulation in Cameroon]. Paris, France: Karthala.Google Scholar
Mehran, Hassanali, Ugolini, Piero, Briffaux, Jean Philippe, Iden, George, Lybek, Tonny, Swaray, Stephen, and Hayward, Peter. 1998. “Financial Sector Development in Sub-Saharan African Countries.” Washington, DC: International Monetary Fund.Google Scholar
Moore, Barrington. 1966. Social Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy. Boston, Mass.: Beacon Press.Google Scholar
Mouiche, Ibrahim. 2005. Autorités Traditionnelles et Démocratisation au Cameroun: Entre Centralité de l'Etat et Logiques de Terroir [Traditional authorities and democratization in Cameroon: between state centrality and local logic]. Berlin, Germany: LIT Verlag.Google Scholar
Mozaffar, Shaheen, and Scarritt, James R.. 2005. “The Puzzle of African Party Systems.” Party Politics 11, no. 4: 399–421.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Munene, Macharia. 2001. The Politics of Transition in Kenya: 1995–1998. Nairobi, Kenya: Quest & Insight.Google Scholar
Ngayap, Pierre Flambeau. 1983. Cameroun, Qui Gouverne? De Ahidjo à Biya: L'Héritage et l›Enjeu [Cameroon, who governs? From Ahidjo to Biya: the legacy and the challenge]. Paris, France: Harmattan.Google Scholar
Ngayap, Pierre Flambeau. 1999. L'Opposition au Cameroun: Les Années de Braise [The opposition in Cameroon: the years of embers]. Paris, France: Harmattan.Google Scholar
Njogu, Kimani. 2001. “The Culture of Politics and Ethnic Nationalism.” In Rutten, Marcel, Mazrui, Amin, and Grignon, Francois, eds., Out for the Count: The 1997 General Elections and Prospects for Democracy in Kenya. Kampala, Uganda: Fountain Publishers.Google Scholar
Nordlinger, Eric A. 1972. “Conflict Regulation in Divided Societies.” Occasional Papers in International Affairs, no. 29. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Center for International Affairs.Google Scholar
North, Douglass C., and Weingast, Barry R.. 1989. “Constitutions and Commitment: The Evolution of Institutions Governing Public Choice in Seventeenth-Century England.” Journal of Economic History XLIX, no. 4: 803–32.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nugent, Paul. 2007. “Banknotes and Symbolic Capital: Ghana's Election under the Fourth Republic.” In Basedau, Matthias, Erdmann, Gero, and Mehler, Andreas, eds., Votes, Money, and Violence: Political Parties and Elections in Sub-Saharan Africa. Uppsala, Sweden: Nordiska Afrikainstitutet.Google Scholar
O'Brien, F. S., and Ryan, Terry C. I.. 2001. “Kenya.” In Devarajan, Shantayanan, Dollar, David, and Holmgren, Torgny, eds., Aid and Reform in Africa: Lessons from Ten Case Studies. Washington, DC: World Bank.Google Scholar
Nguini, Owona, Eric, Mathias. 1996. “L'Etat et les Milieux d'Affaires au Cameroun: Autoritarisme, Ajustement au Marché et Démocratie.” Polis 2, no. 2.Google Scholar
Popiel, Paul A. 1994. “Financial Systems in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Comparative Study.” World Bank Discussion Paper no. 260. Washington, DC: World Bank.Google Scholar
Posner, Daniel N. 2005. Institutions and Ethnic Politics in Africa. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rabushka, Alvin, and Shepsle, Kenneth A.. 1972. Politics in Plural Societies. Columbus, Ohio: Merrill.Google Scholar
Reilly, Benjamin. 2001. Democracy in Divided Societies: Electoral Engineering for Conflict Management. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Republic of Kenya. 2002. “Report of the Tribunal Appointed by the Parliamentary Service Commission to Review and Make Recommendations on the Terms and Conditions of Service for Members of Parliament.” Nairobi, Kenya: Government Printer.Google Scholar
Riker, William H. 1982. Liberalism against Populism: A Confrontation between the Theory of Democracy and the Theory of Social Choice. Prospect Heights, Ill.: Waveland Press.Google Scholar
Root, Hilton L. 1994. The Fountain of Privilege: Political Foundations of Markets in Old Regime France and England. Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Ross, Michael L. 2001. “Does Oil Hinder Democracy?” World Politics 53, no. 3 (April): 325–61.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rothchild, Donald. 1970. “Ethnicity and Conflict Resolution.” World Politics 22, no. 4 (July): 597–616.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sandbrook, Richard. 1993. The Politics of Africa's Economic Recovery. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Snyder, Jack. 2000. From Voting to Violence: Democratization and Nationalist Conflict. New York, N.Y.: Norton.Google Scholar
Soudan, Francois, and Siewe, Alex. 2004. “Comment l'opposition s'est suicide.” Jeune Afrique L'Intelligent, September 30.Google Scholar
Stasavage, David. 1997. “The CFA Franc Zone and Fiscal Discipline.” Journal of African Economies 6, no. 1: 132–67.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Stone, Randall W. 2004. “The Political Economy of IMF Lending in Africa.” American Political Science Review 98, no. 4: 577–91.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Takougang, Joseph. 2003. “The 2002 Legislative Election in Cameroon: A Retrospective on Cameroon's Stalled Democracy Movement.” Journal of Modern African Studies 41, no. 3: 421–35.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Takougang, Joseph, and Krieger, Milton. 1998. African State and Society in the 1990s: Cameroon's Political Crossroads. Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press.Google Scholar
Tilly, Charles. 1992. Coercion, Capital, and European States, AD 990–1992. Cambridge, Mass.: Blackwell.Google Scholar
van de Walle, Nicolas. 1993. “The Politics of Nonreform in Cameroon.” In Callaghy, Thomas M. and Ravenhill, John, eds., Hemmed In: Responses to Africa's Economic Decline. New York, N.Y.: Columbia University Press.Google Scholar
van de Walle, Nicolas. 2001. African Economies and the Politics of Permanent Crisis, 1979–1999. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
van de Walle, Nicolas. 2003. “Presidentialism and Clientelism in Africa's Emerging Party Systems.” Journal of Modern African Studies 41, no. 2: 297–21.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
van de Walle, Nicolas. 2006. “Tipping Games: When Do Opposition Parties Coalesce?” In Schedler, Andreas, ed., Electoral Authoritarianism: The Dynamics of Unfree Competition. Boulder, Colo.: Lynne Rienner.Google Scholar
van de Walle, Nicolas. 2007. “Meet the New Boss, Same as the Old Boss? The Evolution of Political Clientelism in Africa.” In Kitschelt, Herbert and Wilkinson, Steven I., eds., Patrons, Clients, and Policies: Patterns of Democratic Accountability and Political Competition. Cambridge. UK: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Wafula, Robert. 2002. “Stop Dreaming of the Presidency, Wamalwa Tells DP Leader.” The Nation (Nairobi), February 4.Google Scholar
Wantchekon, Leonard. 2003. “Clientelism and Voting Behavior: Evidence from a Field Experiment in Benin.” World Politics 55, no. 3 (April): 399–422.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Weber, Max. 1978. Economy and Society. Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Press.Google Scholar
Weldon, Steven A. 2006. “The Institutional Context of Tolerance for Ethnic Minorities: A Comparative, Multilevel Analysis of Western Europe.” American Journal of Political Science 50, no. 2: 331–49.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Widner, Jennifer A. 1992. The Rise of a Party-State in Kenya: From “Harambee!” to “Nyayo!” Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Widner, Jennifer A., ed. 1994. Economic Change and Political Liberalization in Sub-Saharan Africa. Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Williamson, John, ed. 1994. The Political Economy of Policy Reform. Washington, DC: Institute for International Economics.Google Scholar
World Bank. 1997. “Adjustment Lending in Sub-Saharan Africa: An Update.” Report no. 16594. Washington, DC: World Bank.Google Scholar
World Bank. 2003. “Kenya: A Policy Agenda to Restore Growth.” Report no. 25840-KE. Washington, DC: World Bank.Google Scholar
World Bank. 2009. World Development Indicators. Washington, D.C.: World Bank.Google Scholar
Zolberg, Aristide. 1966. Creating Political Order: The Party-States of West Africa. Chicago, Ill.: Rand McNally.Google Scholar