Progress in the selection of production traits in the poultry industry has been dramatic over the past 75 years. Genetic progress has its biological limits and these may be reached in the next 20 years. The poultry industry will need to adapt with more emphasis on the needs of the consumer (e.g. product quality, health and animal welfare), as well as the needs of the breeders/producers (e.g. lower feed costs and higher fertility). These new traits are difficult and costly to measure by conventional genetic selection methods - the application of genomics is a possible solution. Poultry genomics has benefited from the rapid technological advances in the genetics of model organisms and human. A number of resources and approaches are now well established, including genetic markers and maps (both genetic and physical), QTL mapping, comparative mapping, EST and BAC resources. In addition, the next phase of gene discovery - Functional Genomics is underway. How the poultry industry can benefit and get access to these new technologies is discussed.

In 1995, the Member Governments of the Food and Agricultural Organisation (FAO) of the United Nations resolved that their Secretariat would develop the Global Strategy for the Management of Farm Animal Genetic Resources for country use. One of the sub-elements of this strategy is the establishment of a Global Databank for Farm Animal Genetic Resources. A snapshot of this Global Databank was analysed and synthesized in form of an extensive inventory known as the World Watch List for Domestic Animal Diversity (WWL-DAD). The 3rd edition (WWL-DAD:3) based on data collected up to November 1999 contains per-country reports for 16 mammalian and 14 avian species including a total of 6379 breed entries. Breed data recorded for 14 avian species encompasses only 16% (1049) of total breed entries. The majority (89%) of avian breeds recorded falls into one of the five major avian species: chicken (71%), duck (8%), goose (6%), turkey (3%) and muscovy duck (2%). For chicken, turkey and goose, most breeds are recorded in Europe, but largest number of duck breeds is found in Asia and the Pacific region. The proportional share of the global population size is greatest for Asia and the Pacific region for all major avian species except turkey, for which most records were from Europe. Of the 938 avian breeds of the five species, 460 (49%) breeds have been classified as being at risk of loss, whereas for 182 breeds (19%) no population data were available. Availability of recorded data differs considerably between regions and classification of breeds into the different risk status categories refers only to population within a given country. Therefore, data cannot be interpreted in a global way and the identification of breeds with highest risk of loss is complicated due to overlap of records of the same breed in different countries as well as missing data. Next steps should consequently be the strengthening of surveying and data collection activities, the improvement of breed data quality and the assessment of between breed variation by modern molecular tools as outlined in the FAO's proposed project on Maintenance of Domestic Animal Genetic Diversity (MoDAD).

The nutritional antagonism of arginine (Arg) and lysine (Lys) was first identified and investigated in the 1950's and 1960's. The results of this early research suggest the optimum Arg:Lys ratio to fall between 0.8 and 1.7, depending upon dietary levels of electrolytes such as sodium, potassium, and chloride. Calculations from the more recent optimum amino acid balances included in widely referenced authoritative sources suggest the optimum Arg:Lys ratio to be in the range from 0.90 to 1.18. Changes from the ‘optimum’ value of the ratio can have adverse effects on the performance of growing poultry. The effect is more evident with an excess of lysine (low Arg:Lys ratio) than with an excess of arginine (high Arg:Lys ratio). Studies with heat-stressed broilers have shown that the optimum Arg:Lys ratio varies with ambient temperature. The Arg:Lys ratio for optimum broiler body weight gain and feed efficiency increases at high temperatures, probably because of a reduced uptake of arginine from the digestive tract. The improved response of broilers to increasing dietary Arg:Lys ratio is most clearly seen during heat stress with diets containing minimum concentrations of NaCI. This response diminishes with high dietary NaCl and with NaHCO3 supplementation, when the optimum dietary Arg:Lys ratio declines from the high ratio (~1.30) observed with low dietary NaCl. Furthermore, the nature of the methionine activity source influences the optimum dietary Arg:Lys ratio for heat-stressed broilers. The performance of broilers fed 2-hydroxy-4-(methylthio) butanoic acid (HMB) is optimised at high Arg:Lys ratios (1.35) whereas broilers fed equimolar supplements of DL-methionine (DLM) tend to optimise performance at lower Arg:Lys ratios (1.05). The selection of the correct methionine activity source as a dietary supplement is likely to become more important if the current trend to exclude animal protein feed ingredients with low Arg:Lys ratios from poultry diets continues.

Scientific literature recommends that feed is withdrawn from poultry prior to slaughter to reduce the potential for carcass contamination from crop and intestinal contents. Much research focused on identification of optimum withdrawal times and conditions to maintain slaughter/processing efficiency of poultry. This paper reviews the basic research, as well as practical aspects of implementing feed withdrawal programmes under field conditions. It should be pointed out that, commercial application of feed withdrawal programmes may vary from one country to another, not only because of differences in live production capacities and practices but also in slaughter/inspection regulations. Potential for carcass contamination, both visually and microbiologically, live weight shrink, and saleable yield losses must be taken into account in designing, implementing and monitoring feed withdrawal programmes.

Heritabilities for egg quality traits in Japanese quail are moderate to high, and there are strong genetic correlations between egg weight and its component parts. Egg quality is affected by selection on body weight, but these effects differ somewhat between experiments, maybe in relation to the origins of breeding lines. Selection on egg production could increase yolk content. Direct selection work on egg quality traits has shown that there was genetic variation for yolk-related characters. The ω6/ω3 PUFA ratio can be improved by selection.

The two most important quality attributes for poultry meat are appearance and texture. Appearance is critical for both the consumers' initial selection of the product as well as for final product satisfaction. Texture is the single most important sensory property affecting final quality assessment. Appearance quality attributes include skin colour, meat colour, cooked meat pinkness, and appearance defects such as bruises and haemorrhages. Since appearance is so critical for consumer selection, poultry producers go to great lengths to produce products with the appropriate colour for a particular market and to avoid appearance defects which will negatively effect product selection or price. Historically, meat tenderness was primarily associated with live bird quality factors such as breed, sex, or age. However, modern production practices produce highly uniform young birds in which the major problems associated with meat texture are the result of processing errors or early deboning. Although other quality issues such as juiciness and flavour are important, they are more a function of product preparation and infrequent, but acute, production or processing errors which are usually easily corrected or avoided. An understanding of the major issues contributing to poultry colour and meat tenderness is critical to producing uniform quality products.

As is the case with any industrial process, the manufacture of poultry feeds is subject to considerable sources of variation. If requirements for key nutrients are not met, bird performance in the field will likely be negatively affected. As a result, most poultry companies and feed manufacturers establish quality control programmes as a means of reducing risk. Such programmes must be viewed as an integral part of the business structure of any organization. While they may not be considered ′profit centers′ per se, expenses incurred by a quality control programme must be considered investments, and investments are understood to produce economic returns. Procedures to be incorporated in quality control programmes must be selected based on the economic consequences of uncontrolled variation in given parameters, and the cost of monitoring each. Depending on the size and volume of a given feed manufacturing facility, many evaluations will be conducted on the premises, while others (including most in vivo procedures) will be sent to outside specialized testing facilities. Once a budget has been established for a quality control programme, resources should be shifted as needed to address those sources of variation of most immediate concern to the production of high quality feeds.

In the first part of this review (Surai, 2002), the antioxidant properties and pro-oxidant activity of Se have been described. In spite of a long history, our knowledge of the molecular mechanisms of Se action in human and animals are still in their initial stages. Indeed Se is an integral part of various selenoproteins with glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px) being the first selenoprotein identified in 1973. Se's participation in antioxidant defence and in the regulation of redox status of the cell could explain its importance to various physiological functions, especially to reproduction. Chicken embryo tissues and spermatozoa are rich in long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) and as a result are very vulnerable to lipid peroxidation. Therefore Se is a crucial factor in maintaining appropriate antioxidant defence during embryonic development and spermatogenesis. In conditions of stress in commercial poultry production the beneficial effects of Se are difficult to overestimate. From egg storage before incubation, when lipid peroxidation can occur, to the final day of egg production, Se participates in preventing the damaging effects of free radicals and toxic products of their metabolism. Dietary antioxidant supplementation in general and organic Se supplementation in particular are considered to be major protective measures for maintaining high productive and reproductive characteristics in poultry.

The physical characteristics of the egg play an important role in the processes of embryo development and successful hatching. The most influential egg parameters are: weight, shell thickness and porosity, shape index, described as maximum breadth to length ratio, and the consistency of the contents. The average values of the physical characteristics mostly meet the requirements for the embryo's development. For those eggs, whose parameters do not fall in to the average range, the incubation process is more successful if the shell is thicker than average, the eggs are more pointed rather than round, and the contents firm. The results reported for investigations into incubating eggs, whose weights are not within the average values, are contradictory. Both thick shells and firm interiors, which are accepted as being higher than average, lead to an increase in egg weight, which probably results in the more successful hatching of embryos from heavier eggs.

Broiler breeders are truly caught in a welfare dilemma, because the management practices that are necessary to ensure health and reproductive competence may also result in a reduction in other aspects of welfare. In this paper I review the welfare concerns associated with feed restriction of broiler breeders. Broiler breeders show evidence of physiological stress as well as an increased incidence of abnormal behaviours, and are also chronically hungry. Alternative methods of decreasing feed intake, dietary dilution or the use of anorexic agents, are also discussed. Thus far, all of these methods have proven unsatisfactory in terms of body weight control, and in addition they do not necessarily improve welfare. Emphasis needs to continue to be placed on developing alternatives to, and modifications of, current feed restriction programmes in order to improve broiler breeder welfare. In addition, the use of genetic selection to decrease the need for restriction should be further explored.

Post-mortem electrical stimulation (ES) is not a new technology but has only recently become a commercial possibility for use in broiler processing. In broilers, ES seeks to reduce the toughness of meat that is deboned prior to the normal aging (or maturation) period. This is different from its previous use in red meat in which it is largely used to improve many aspects of the quality of meat that is aged on the carcass. Although many different ES techniques have been studied, the systems can be grouped into low amperage (0–200 mA per bird) and high amperage systems (350–500 mA per bird). Both types of systems have been used by processors and high amperage stimulators are available from a commercial manufacturer. The low amperage systems vary in their conditions and are commonly combined with other, enhancing procedures. The low amperage systems accelerate rigor development and prevent sarcomere shortening in the breast fillet after deboning, while the high amperage systems also induce the additional effect of myofibrillar damage to further improve tenderness. ES is a complex technology with many factors that need to be controlled for its successful implementation.

Prevention and control of mycotoxins in the poultry production chain requires the knowledge and consideration of all factors influencing mycotoxin formation in the field and during the storage of feedstuffs. Mycotoxin effects on health and performance of poultry and the ‘carry over’ of mycotoxins or their metabolites into foodstuffs of animal origin are also essential information elements.

Among a number of known my cotoxins, the Fusarium-mycotoxins deoxynivalenol (DON) and zearalenone (ZON) are of special importance under European production conditions because of their high frequency and concentrations. Several plant production strategies might help to minimize the risk of formation of these mycotoxins. However, higher mean values are unavoidable under unfavourable weather conditions. Therefore, special care must be taken in so-called ‘Fusurium-years’, because poultry is regarded as less sensitive to these mycotoxins than pigs and suspect cereal batches will be diverted to poultry feeding.

Higher dietary DON-concentrations adversely affect the performance and immune response of poultry at dietary concentrations of greater than 5 mg per kg diet. In contrast, zearalenone, which often co-occurs with DON, does not cause deleterious effects in poultry even in ‘Fusurium-years’ when higher concentrations are measured. ‘Carry over’ of both toxins into poultry products is very low and is negligible when the DON-concentration of the diet is restricted to this 5 mg per kg.

The levels of further Fusurium mycotoxins such as T-2 toxin, fumonisins, moniliformin or beauvericin to be expected in Europe are too low to cause toxic effects in poultry. However, several combinations of co-occurring mycotoxins might influence the total toxic potential of a contaminated feedstuff.

Several feed-processing procedures are suitable for reducing the DON-content of contaminated feedstuffs, but they are expensive or have been only lab-tested. Adsorbing agents were shown to either only weakly bind DON, or not to bind it at all in vitro, and to be ineffective in vivo. More recent efforts have been directed at employing the capability of several micro-organisms (bacteria and yeasts) to degrade DON for detoxification in situ.

The reduction in levels of organochlorine pesticide residues in food of animal origin in the past 30 years has been achieved especially by controlling entrance via the feed chain. A further reduction was achieved by registration and use of less persistent pesticides both for direct treatment of animals and of plant material. The remaining problems (e.g. dioxins and PCB's) are much harder to tackle. They are either of a ubiquitous nature and their impact might be enlarged by the present welfare trend requiring more contact of the animals with their environment, or they are of a sporadic nature making checking and control quite hard to execute. The present public demand for a farm animal production that is in balance with the animals' needs and a residue free product adds even more complications to the system.

Hen egg proteins are desirable ingredients of many foods. Today, eggs are widely distributed in international trade and the egg industry is an important segment of the world food industry. Hen egg proteins have unique functional properties such as gelling, foaming (egg white) and emulsifying (egg yolk) properties. This review describes the recent advances in molecular basis of the development of these functional properties as well as technical development of new approaches for improving the functional properties of egg proteins. A better understanding of structure-function relationship of egg protein functionality in food system will enable us for tailoring food protein for specific uses.

This report is a standardized compendium of age-related reproductive response data of turkey hens from the use of dietary supplemental d-biotin, pyridoxine and folic acid; and of commercial and domestic egg injections of each of the crystalline vitamins to determine their limiting inherent essence in causing embryo failure. With reproductive response data reported in each of three grouped time periods of production (5–6 wk each), the system of analysis was not confounded with feed consumption with the progression of maternal age.

Maternal age had no effect on vitamin transport to the egg for any of the three vitamins; and no effect on hatchability or poult weight, with the exception of biotin and folic acid, respectively. With the progression of maternal age, higher dietary biotin and folic acid levels were required for hatchability and poult weight, respectively, after 5–6 wk of production.

There was a lack of/or minor effect of dietary pyridoxine on the transfer of vitamin B6, for hatchability of turkey eggs. Egg injections of pyridoxine were vital for increasing hatchability even though the hen's diet was amply supplemented with pyridoxine. Manual egg vitamin injections are considered valuable for diagnosing possible limiting vitamins for hatchability. The manual injection method utilized small egg numbers and was administered at selective intervals over the production cycle. Automated injections were utilized for commercial flocks where egg numbers were large. Automated egg injections performed in the commercial sector, had no detrimental influence on poult viability or growth after hatching. Statistical reliability existed between hatchability results of automated and manual egg injections of a single vitamin level, and between different flocks of the same strain, both commercial and experimental.

The report offers practical insight for versatile changes in meeting dietary and egg needs of the three vitamins for higher reproductive performance. The report also offers new insight for hatchability improvement with dietary biotin with the progression of age in the hen.

The commercial turkey market changed during the last two or three decades from predominantly whole turkey to mostly further processed products as consumer demand for breast meat and convenience increased in most western countries. Turkey operations focus on selection in breeding, management, and feeding programs to obtain a high breast meat yield. Main factors that affect breast meat yield are age, weight, sex, strain, genetic selection, and nutrition. The degree of influence by these factors on breast meat yield is highly dependent upon environmental conditions, especially ambient temperatures. This review deals with the response of commercial male turkeys on dietary lysine to energy ratios in moderate and hot climate conditions. A range dietary lysine to energy ratios have been determined to be optimal during each successive four-week period after hatch: 1.12 to 1.65, 1.10 to 1.36, 0.76 to 1.15, 0.64 to 0.81, and 0.53 to 0.86 g dietary lysine per MJ of ME, respectively). These optimum ranges in lysine to energy ratios are partly due to the continuous changes in genetic potential for growth and environmental effects on feed intake. Commercial male turkeys weighed about 18.5 kg at 140 days of age with a feed: gain ratio of 2.6 in 2001, as compared to about 8.0 kg at 220 days of age with a feed: gain ratio of 3.0 in 1966. Moreover, there is clear evidence in scientific literature that feed intake, and thus protein intake is negatively affected by short or long periods of heat stress in moderate and hot climates, respectively. Although some research included ambient temperature as a treatment variable in nutritional requirement studies with turkeys, most have been conducted at moderate temperatures. Feeding turkeys to minimize the adverse effects of heat stress is a big challenge for the modern turkey industry. More research is needed to better understand the relationship between dietary energy and lysine at different climatic conditions.