Introduction

MIP is a means of securing a basic standard of living for those population groups that are not adequately covered and protected by social insurance or general non-means-tested benefits. Hence, the role of MIP in the welfare state context can be interpreted as residual. On the other hand, a close look at the margins of the welfare state gives insights into the contents and limits of social citizenship rights as defined by Marshall in 1950 (Leibfried, 1992; Marshall and Bottomore, 1992). Even if residual in quantitative terms, MIP is a central policy instrument for promoting citizens’ chances to participate in society. Nonetheless, European welfare states have institutionalised their last safety nets in different ways. While most countries in the study sample have a centrally organised, general MIP scheme, many also rely on categorical benefits for specific groups, such as older and disabled persons or refugees. Some countries’ MIP schemes are more decentralised, with varying benefit levels and degrees of discretion at the regional or local level. In legal terms, MIP does not always take the form of a subjective citizenship right but rests on a more general notion about social support for the poor, leaving room for interpretation and coverage gaps. Regardless of its formal status, MIP frequently remains an ‘incomplete social right’ (Saraceno, 2010, p 171) and can only be understood in context with other forms of income protection.

According to Miller (1976, 1999), the right to benefits is based on statements of social justice that depend on the various kinds of relationships that connect people in society. He distinguishes three modes of relationship: 1) solidaric community; 2) instrumental association; and 3) citizenship. A solidaric community is characterised by its stability over time and the shared identity and culture of its members. It is the basic type of relationship in families or religious communities. Need is the main principle of distribution based on solidarity, and entitlements depend on how closely linked persons are to the community. An instrumental association exists when people collaborate in order to achieve a common aim, as they do, for example, in a market relationship or organisation. The criterion of justice in this case is desert: members who have contributed more to the association's goals are eligible to more social support.