Ibanez, B, James, S, Agewall, S, et al.; ESC Scientific Document Group. 2017 ESC Guidelines for the management of acute myocardial infarction in patients presenting with ST-segment elevation: The Task Force for the management of acute myocardial infarction in patients presenting with ST-segment elevation of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC). Eur Heart J 2018;39:119–77.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Roffi, M, Patrono, C, Collet, J-P, et al.; ESC Scientific Document Group. 2015 ESC Guidelines for the management of acute coronary syndromes in patients presenting without persistent ST-segment elevation: Task Force for the management of acute coronary syndromes in patients presenting without persistent ST-segment elevation of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC). Eur Heart J 2016;37:267–315.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Thygesen, K, Alpert, JS, Jaffe, AS, et al.; ESC Scientific Document Group. Fourth universal definition of myocardial infarction (2018). Eur Heart J 2019;40:237–69.Google ScholarPubMed

Holzmeister, J, Leclercq, C. Implantable cardioverter defibrillators and cardiac resynchronisation therapy. Lancet 2011;378:722–30.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Jacob, S, Panaich, SS, Maheshwari, P, Haddad, JW, Padanilam, BJ, John, SK. Clinical applications of magnets on cardiac rhythm management devices. Europace 2011;13:1222–30.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Leyva, F. Pacing supplement: cardiac resynchronisation therapy – developments in heart failure management. Br J Cardiol 2018;25(Suppl 3):S12–19.Google Scholar

National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. 2014. Implantable cardioverter defibrillators and cardiac resynchronisation therapy for arrhythmias and heart failure. www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ta314Google Scholar

Arrigo, M, Parissis, J, Akiyama, E, Mebazaa, A. Understanding acute heart failure: pathophysiology and diagnosis. Eur Heart J 2016;18(Suppl G):G11–18.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. 2014. Acute heart failure: diagnosis and management. www.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg187Google Scholar

National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. 2014. Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) for acute heart failure in adults. www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ipg482Google Scholar

National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. 2017. CentriMag for heart failure. www.nice.org.uk/advice/mib92Google Scholar

Yancy, C, Jessup, M, Bozkurt, B, et al. 2013 ACCF/AHA guideline for the management of heart failure. A report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines. Circulation 2013;128:e240–327.Google Scholar

Baumgartner, H, Falk, V, Bax, JJ, et al. 2017 ESC/EACTS guidelines for the management of valvular heart disease. Eur Heart J 2017;38:2739–91.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Bonow, RO, Carabello, BA, Chatterjee, K, et al. ACC/AHA 2006 guidelines for the management of patients with valvular heart disease: a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines (writing committee to revise the 1998 guidelines for the management of patients with valvular heart disease) developed in collaboration with the Society of Cardiovascular Anesthesiologists and endorsed by the Society for Cardiovascular Angiography and Interventions and the Society of Thoracic Surgeons. J Am Coll Cardiol 2006;48:e1–148.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Maganti, K, Rigolin, VH, Sarano, ME, Bonow, RO. Valvular heart disease: diagnosis and management. Mayo Clin Proc 2010;85:483–500.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Parrillo, JE, Dellinger, RP. Valvular heart disease in critical care. In: Parrillo, JE, Dellinger, RP (eds). Critical Care Medicine: Principles of Diagnosis and Management in the Adult, 4th edn. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier; 2014. pp. 548–75.Google Scholar

Vahanian, A, Baumgartner, H, Bax, J, et al.; Task Force on the Management of Valvular Heart Disease of the European Society of Cardiology and ESC Committee for Practice Guidelines. Guidelines on the management of valvular heart disease: The Task Force on the Management of Valvular Heart Disease of the European Society of Cardiology. Eur Heart J 2007;28:230–68.Google ScholarPubMed

Allan, CK. Intensive care of the adult patient with congenital heart disease. Progr Cardiovasc Dis 2011;53:274–80.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Andropoulos, DB, Stayer, SA, Russell, IA. Anesthesia for Congenital Heart Disease. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Blackwell; 2010.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Fraser, CD, Kane, LC. Congenital heart disease. In: Townsend, C, Beauchamp, RD, Evers, BM, Mattox, K (eds). Sabiston Textbook of Surgery, 20th edn. Philadelphia, PA: WB Saunders; 2016. pp. 1619–57.Google Scholar

Kelleher, A. Adult congenital heart disease (grown-up congenital heart disease). Contin Educ Anaesth Crit Care Pain 2012;12:28–32.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Webb, GD, Smallhorn, JF, Therrien, J, Redington, AN. Congenital heart disease. In: Mann, D, Zipes, D, Libby, P, Bonow, R, Braunwald, E (eds). Brawnwald’s Heart Disease. A Textbook of Cardiovascular Medicine, 10th edn. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier; 2015. pp. 1391–445.Google Scholar

Habib, G, Lancellotti, P, Atunes, MJ, et al. 2015 ESC Guidelines for the management of infective endocarditis: The Task Force for the Management of Infective Endocarditis of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC). Endorsed by: European Association for Cardio-Thoracic Surgery (EACTS), the European Association of Nuclear Medicine (EANM). Eur Heart J 2015;36:3075–128.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Kang, D-H, Kim, Y-J, Kim, S-H, et al. Early surgery versus conventional treatment for infective endocarditis. N Engl J Med 2012;366:2466–73.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. 2008. Antimicrobial prophylaxis against infective endocarditis in adults and children undergoing interventional procedures. Clinical guideline [CG64]. www.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg64Google Scholar

Prendergast, BD, Tornos, P. Surgery for infective endocarditis: who and when? Circulation 2010;121:1141–52.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Sharma, V, Candililo, L, Hausenloy, DJ. Infective endocarditis: an intensive care perspective. Trends Anaes Crit Care 2010;2:36–41.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Sonneville, R, Mourvillier, B, Bouadma, L, Wolff, M. Management of neurological complications of infective endocarditis in ICU patients. Ann Intensive Care 2011;1:10.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Thury, F, Grisoli, D, Collart, F, Habib, G, Raoult, D. Management of infective endocarditis: challenges and perspectives. Lancet 2012;379:965–75.Google Scholar

Babar, TB, Basman, CL. Hypertension. In: Ferri, FF (ed). Ferri’s Clinical Advisor 2017. E-Book. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier; 2017. pp. 639–643.e4.Google Scholar

Pinna, G, Pascale, C, Fornengo, P, et al. Hospital admissions for hypertensive crisis in emergency departments: a large multicenter Italian study. PLoS One 2014;9:393542.Google Scholar

Shayne, P, Lynch, CA. Hypertensive crisis. In: Adams, JG, Barton, ED, Collings, JL, DeBlieux, PMC, Gisondi, MA, Nadel, ES (eds). Emergency Medicine E-Book Clinical Essentials, 2nd edn. Philadelphia, PA: Saunders; 2013. pp. 592–601.e1.Google Scholar

Suneja, M, Sanders, L. Hypertensive emergency. Med Clin North Am 2017;101:465–78.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Whelton, PK, Carey, RM, Aornow, WS, et al. 2017 ACC/AHA/AAPA/ABC/ACPM/AGS/APhA/ASPC/NMA/PCNA guideline for the prevention, detection, evaluation, and management of high blood pressure in adults: a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Clinical Practice Guidelines. Hypertension 2018;71:e13–115.Google Scholar

Bersten, A, Soni, N (eds). Oh’s Intensive Care Manual, 6th edn. Edinburgh: Butterworth Heinemann; 2009.Google Scholar

Caldeira, D, David, C, Sampaio, C. Rate versus rhythm control in atrial fibrillation and clinical outcomes: updated systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Arch Cardiovasc Dis 2012;105:226–38.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

January, CT, Wann, LS, Alpert, JS, et al. 2014 AHA/ACC/HRS guideline for the management of patients with atrial fibrillation: executive summary: a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on practice guidelines and the Heart Rhythm Society. Circulation 2014;130:2071–104. Erratum in: Circulation 2014;130:e270–1.Google Scholar

National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. 2014. Implantable cardioverter defibrillators and cardiac resynchronisation therapy for arrhythmias and heart failure. www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ta314/chapter/1-GuidanceGoogle Scholar

Sibley, S, Muscedere, J. New-onset atrial fibrillation in critically ill patients. Can Respir J 2015;22:179–82.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Caforio, AL, Pankuweit, S, Arbustini, E, et al. Current state of knowledge on aetiology, diagnosis, management, and therapy of myocarditis: a position statement of the European Society of Cardiology Working Group on Myocardial and Pericardial Diseases. Eur Heart J 2013;34:2636–48, 264848a–d.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Adler, Y, Charron, P, Imazio, M, et al. 2015 ESC Guidelines for the diagnosis and management of pericardial diseases: The Task Force for the Diagnosis and Management of Pericardial Diseases of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC) Endorsed by: The European Association for Cardio-Thoracic Surgery (EACTS). Eur Heart J 2015;36:2921–64.Google Scholar

Bodson, L, Bouferrache, K, Vieillard-Baron, A. Cardiac tamponade. Curr Opin Crit Care 2011;17:416–24.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Imazio, M, Adler, Y. Management of pericardial effusion. Eur Heart J 2013;34:1186–97.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Klein, AL, Abbara, S, Agler, DA, et al. American Society of Echocardiography clinical recommendations for multimodality cardiovascular imaging of patients with pericardial disease: endorsed by the Society for Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance and Society of Cardiovascular Computed Tomography. J Am Soc Echocardiogr 2013;26:965–1012 e15.Google Scholar

Gordon, AC, Perkins, GD, Singer, M, et al. Levosimendan for the prevention of acute organ dysfunction in sepsis. N Engl J Med 2016;375:1638–48.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

IABP-SHOCK II Trial Investigators. Intra-aortic balloon counterpulsation in acute myocardial infarction complicated by cardiogenic shock (IABP-SHOCK II): final 12 month results of a randomised, open-label trial. N Engl J Med 2012;367:1287–96.Google Scholar

Landoni, G, Lomivorotov, VV, Alvaro, G, et al. Levosimendan for hemodynamic support after cardiac surgery. N Engl J Med 2017; 376:2021–31.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Semler, MW. Balanced crystalloids versus saline in critically ill adults. N Engl J Med 2018;378:829–39.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Chiappini, B, Schepens, M, Tan, E, et al. Early and late outcomes of acute type A aortic dissection: analysis of risk factors in 487 consecutive patients. Eur Heart J 2005;26:180–6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Erbel, R, Aboyans, V, Boileau, C, et al. 2014 ESC Guidelines on the diagnosis and treatment of aortic diseases: Document covering acute and chronic aortic diseases of the thoracic and abdominal aorta of the adult. The Task Force for the Diagnosis and Treatment of Aortic Diseases of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC). Eur Heart J 2014;35:2873–926.Google ScholarPubMed

Erbel, R, Engberding, R, Daniel, W, Roelandt, J, Visser, C, Rennollet, H. Echocardiography in diagnosis of aortic dissection. Lancet 1989;1:457–61.Google ScholarPubMed

Hiratzka, LF, Bakris, GL, Beckman, JA, et al. 2010 ACCF/AHA/AATS/ACR/ASA/SCA/SCAI/SIR/STS/SVM guidelines for the diagnosis and management of patients with thoracic aortic disease: a report of the American College of Cardiology Foundation/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines, American Association for Thoracic Surgery, American College of Radiology, American Stroke Association, Society of Cardiovascular Anesthesiologists, Society for Cardiovascular Angiography and Interventions, Society of Interventional Radiology, Society of Thoracic Surgeons, and Society for Vascular Medicine. Circulation 2010;121:e266–369.Google Scholar

Iliceto, S, Ettorre, G, Francioso, G, Antonelli, G, Biasco, G, Rizzon, P. Diagnosis of aneurysm of the thoracic aorta. Comparison between two non-invasive techniques: two-dimensional echocardiography and computed tomography. Eur Heart J 1984;5:545–55.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Khandheria, BK, Tajik, AJ, Taylor, CL, et al. Aortic dissection: review of value and limitations of two-dimensional echocardiography in a six-year experience. J Am Soc Echocardiogr 1989;2:17–24.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Mintz, GS, Kotler, MN, Segal, BL, Parry, WR. Two dimensional echocardiographic recognition of the descending thoracic aorta. Am J Cardiol 1979;44:232–8.Google Scholar

Nienaber, CA, von Kodolitsch, Y, Nicolas, V, et al. The diagnosis of thoracic aortic dissection by non-invasive imaging procedures. N Engl J Med 1993;328:1–9.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Novelline, RA, Rhea, JT, Rao, PM, Stuk, JL. Helical CT in emergency radiology. Radiology 1999;213:321–39.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Sommer, T, Fehske, W, Holzknecht, N, et al. Aortic dissection: a comparative study of diagnosis with spiral CT, multiplanar transesophageal echocardiography, and MR imaging. Radiology 1996;199:347–52.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Trimarchi, S, Nienaber, CA, Rampoldi, V, et al. Contemporary results of surgery in acute type A aortic dissection: The International Registry of Acute Aortic Dissection experience. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 2005;129:112–22.Google Scholar

Griffin, BR, Liu, KD, Teixeira, JP. Critical care nephrology: core curriculum 2020. Am J Kidney Dis 2020;75:435–52.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Khwaja, A. KDIGO clinical practice guidelines for acute kidney injury. Nephron Clin Pract 2012;120:c179–84.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Koyner, JL, Thakar, CV. Acute kidney injury and critical care nephrology. Nephrology Self-Assessment Program 2017;16(2).Google Scholar

Moore, PK, Hsu, RK, Liu, KD. Management of acute kidney injury: core curriculum 2018. Am J Kidney Dis 2018;72:136–48.Google ScholarPubMed

Ostermann, N, Joannidis, M. Acute kidney injury 2016: diagnosis and diagnostic workup. Crit Care 2016;20:299.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Ronco, C, Bellomo, R, Kellum, JA. Acute kidney injury. Lancet 2019;394:1949–64.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Blasco-Algora, S, Masegosa-Ataz, J, Gutiérrez-García, ML, et al. Acute-on-chronic liver failure: pathogenesis, prognostic factors and management. World J Gastroenterol 2015;21:12125–40.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Hernaez, R, Solà, E, Moreau, R, et al. Acute-on-chronic liver failure: an update. Gut 2017;66:541–53.Google Scholar

Jalan, R, Yurdaydin, C, Bajaj, JS, et al. Toward an improved definition of acute-on-chronic liver failure. Gastroenterology 2014;147:4–10.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Sarin, SK, Kedarisetty, CK, Abbas, Z, et al. Acute-on-chronic liver failure: consensus recommendations of the Asian Pacific Association for the Study of the Liver (APASL). Hepatol Int 2014;8:453.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Anand, AC, Garg, HK. Approach to clinical syndrome of jaundice and encephalopathy in tropics. J Clin Exp Hepatol 2015;5(Suppl 1):S116–30.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Kruger, D. The assessment of jaundice in adults: tests, imaging, differential diagnosis. JAAPA 2011;24:44–9.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Runyon, BA. Introduction to the revised American Association for the Study of Liver Diseases Practice Guideline management of adult patients with ascites due to cirrhosis 2012. Hepatology 2013;57:1651.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Runyon, BA, Montano, AA, Akriviadis, EA, Antillon, MR, Irving, MA, McHutchison, JG. The serum-ascites albumin gradient is superior to the exudate-transudate concept in the differential diagnosis of ascites. Ann Intern Med 1992;117:215–20.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Saab, S, Nieto, JM, Lewis, SK, Runyon, BA. TIPS versus paracentesis for cirrhotic patients with refractory ascites. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2006;4:CD004889.Google Scholar

Buob, S, Johnston, AN, Webster, CR. Portal hypertension: pathophysiology, diagnosis, and treatment. J Vet Intern Med 2011;25:169–86.Google Scholar

Iwakiri, Y. Pathophysiology of portal hypertension. Clin Liver Dis 2014;18:281–91.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Leung, JC, Loong, TC, Pang, J, Wei, JL, Wong, VW. Invasive and non-invasive assessment of portal hypertension. Hepatol Int 2018;12(Suppl 1):44–55.Google Scholar

Strunk, H, Marinova, M. Transjugular intrahepatic portosystemic shunt (TIPS): pathophysiologic basics, actual indications and results with review of the literature. Rofo 2018;190:701–11.Google ScholarPubMed

Grace, JA, Angus, PW. Hepatopulmonary syndrome: update on recent advances in pathophysiology, investigation, and treatment. J Gastroenterol Hepatol 2013;28:213–19.Google Scholar

Krowka, MJ, Fallon, MB, Kawut, SM, et al. International Liver Transplant Society Practice Guidelines: diagnosis and management of hepatopulmonary syndrome and portopulmonary hypertension. Transplantation 2016;100:1440–52.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Salerno, F, Gerbes, A, Gines, P, Wong, F, Arroyo, V. Diagnosis, prevention and treatment of hepatorenal syndrome in cirrhosis. Gut 2007;56:1310–18.Google Scholar

Wong, F. The evolving concept of acute kidney injury in patients with cirrhosis. Nat Rev Gastroenterol Hepatol 2015;12:711–19.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Felipo, V. Hepatic encephalopathy: effects of liver failure on brain function. Nat Rev Neurosci 2013;14:851–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Suraweera, D, Sundaram, V, Saab, S. Evaluation and management of hepatic encephalopathy: current status and future directions. Gut Liver 2016;10:509–19.Google ScholarPubMed

Wijdicks, E. Hepatic encephalopathy. N Engl J Med 2016;375:1660–70.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Cadena, R, Sarwal, A. Emergency neurological life support: approach to the patient with coma. Neurocrit Care 2017;27(Suppl 1):74–81.Google Scholar

Edlow, JA, Rabenstien, A, Traub, SJ, Wijdicks, EFM. Diagnosis of reversible causes of coma. Lancet 2014;384:2064–76.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Farling, P, Andrews, PJD, Cruickshank, S, et al. Recommendations for the safe transfer of patients with brain injury. London: Association of Anaesthetists of Great Britain & Ireland; 2006.Google Scholar

Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons of Glasgow. The Glasgow structured approach to assessment of the Glasgow Coma Scale. www.glasgowcomascale.orgGoogle Scholar

Souter, MJ, Blissitt, PA, Blosser, S, et al. Recommendations for the critical care management of devastating brain injury: prognostication, psychosocial, and ethical management. Neurocrit Care 2015;23:4–13.Google Scholar

Betjemann, JP, Lowenstein, DH. Status epilepticus in adults. Lancet Neurol 2015;14:615–24.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Brophy, GM, Bell, R, Claassen, J, et al. Guidelines for the evaluation and management of status epilepticus. Neurocrit Care 2012;17:3–23.Google Scholar

Claassen, J, Goldstein, JN. Emergency neurological life support: status epilepticus. Neurocrit Care 2017;27(Suppl 1):S152–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Kapur, J, Elm, J, Chamberlain, JM, et al. Randomized trial of three anticonvulsant medications for status epilepticus. N Engl J Med 2019;381:2103–13.Google Scholar

National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. 2004. Appendix F: Protocols for treating convulsive status epilepticus in adults and children. www.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg137/chapter/appendix-f-protocols-for-treating-convulsive-status-epilepticus-in-adults-and-children-adults#treating-convulsive-status-epilepticus-in-adults-published-in-2004Google Scholar

Scheffer, IE, Berkovic, S, Capovilla, G, et al. ILAE classification of the epilepsies: position paper of the ILAE Commission for classification and terminology. Epilepsia 2017;58:512–21.Google Scholar

Gross, H, Grose, N. Emergency neurological life support: acute ischaemic stroke. Neurocrit Care 2017;27(Suppl 1):S102–15.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Stroke and transient ischaemic attack in over 16s: diagnosis and initial management. London: National Institute for Health and Care Excellence; 2008.Google Scholar

Powers, WJ, Rabinstein, AA, Ackerson, T, et al. 2018 guidelines for the early management of patients with acute stroke: a guideline for healthcare professionals from the American Heart Association/American Stroke Association. Stroke 2018;49:e46–110.Google Scholar

Steiner, T, Al-Shahi Salman, R, Beer, R, et al. European Stroke Organisation (ESO) guidelines for the management of spontaneous intracerebral hemorrhage. Int J Stroke 2014;9:840–55.Google Scholar

Brouwer, MC, McIntyre, P, Prasad, K, Van de Beek, D. Corticosteroids for acute bacterial meningitis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2015;9:CD004405.Google Scholar

Van de Beek, D, de Gans, J, Spanjaard, L, Weisfelt, M, Reitsma, J, Vermeulen, M. Clinical features and prognostic factors in adults with bacterial meningitis. N Engl J Med 2004;351:1849–59.Google Scholar

Van de Beek, D, de Gans, J, Tunkel, AR, Wijdicks, EF. Community-acquired bacterial meningitis in adults. N Engl J Med 2006;354:44–53.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Ahmadsyah, I, Salim, A. Treatment of tetanus: an open study to compare the efficacy of procaine penicillin and metronidazole. Br Med J (Clin Res Ed) 1985;291:648.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Rushdy, AA, White, JM, Ramsay, ME, Crowcroft, NS. Tetanus in England and Wales, 1984–2000. Epidemiol Infect 2003;130:71.Google Scholar

Santos, ML, Mota-Miranda, A, Alves-Pereira, A, et al. Intrathecal baclofen for the treatment of tetanus. Clin Infect Dis 2004;38:321.Google Scholar

Thwaites, CL, Farrar, JJ. Preventing and treating tetanus. BMJ 2003;326:117.Google Scholar

Thwaites, CL, Yen, LM, Loan, HT, et al. Magnesium sulphate for treatment of severe tetanus: a randomised controlled trial. Lancet 2006;368:1436.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Barr, J, Fraser, GL, Puntillo, K, et al.; American College of Critical Care Medicine. Clinical practice guidelines for the management of pain, agitation, and delirium in adult patients in the intensive care unit. Crit Care Med 2013;41:263–306.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Cerejeira, J, Nogueira, V, Luís, P, Vaz-Serra, A, Mukaetova-Ladinska, EB. The cholinergic system and inflammation: common pathways in delirium pathophysiology. J Am Geriatr Soc 2012;60:669–75.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Gusmao-Flores, D, Salluh, JI, Chalhub, RA, Quarantini, LC. The Confusion Assessment Method for the Intensive Care Unit (CAM-ICU) and Intensive Care Delirium Screening Checklist (ICDSC) for the diagnosis of delirium: a systematic review and meta-analysis of clinical studies. Crit Care 2012;16:R115.Google Scholar

Mehta, S, Cook, D, Devlin, JW, et al. Prevalence, risk factors, and outcomes of delirium in mechanically ventilated adults. Crit Care Med 2015;43:557–66.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

De, Jonghe B, Sharshar, T, Lefaucheur, J-P, et al. Paresis acquired in the intensive care unit: a prospective multicenter study. JAMA 2002;288:2859.Google Scholar

Hough, CL, Lieu, BK, Caldwell, ES. Manual muscle strength testing of critically ill patients: feasibility and interobserver agreement. Crit Care 2011;15:R43.Google Scholar

Hughes, R, Cornblath, D. Guillain-Barré syndrome. Lancet 2005;366:1653–66.Google Scholar

Sanders, DB, Wolfe, GI, Benatar, M, et al. International consensus guidance for management of myasthenia gravis: executive summary. Neurology 2016;87:419.Google Scholar

Yuki, N, Hartung, HP. Guillain–Barré syndrome. N Engl J Med 2012;366:2294.Google Scholar

Bonner, S, Smith, C. Initial management of acute spinal cord injury. Contin Educ Anaesth Crit Care Pain 2013;13:224–31.Google Scholar

New, PW, Marshall, R. International spinal cord injury data sets for non-traumatic spinal cord injury. Spinal Cord 2014;52:123–32.Google Scholar

New, PW, Reeves, RK, Smith, E, et al. International retrospective comparison of inpatient rehabilitation for patients with spinal cord dysfunction: epidemiology and clinical outcomes. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2015;96:1080–7.Google Scholar

van den Berg, MEL, Castellote, JM, Mahillo-Fernandez, I, de Pedro-Cuesta, J. Incidence of spinal cord injury worldwide: a systematic review. Neuroepidemiology 2010;34:184–92.Google Scholar

Gralnek, I, Dumonceau, JM, Kuipers, E, et al. Diagnosis and management of nonvariceal upper gastrointestinal haemorrhage: European Society of Gastrointestinal Endoscopy (ESGE) Guidelines. Endoscopy 2015;47:1–46.Google Scholar

National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. 2012. Acute upper gastrointestinal bleeding in over 16s: management. Clinical guideline [CG141]. www.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg141Google Scholar

Osman, D, Djibre, M, Da, Silva D, Goulenok, C. Management by the intensivist of gastrointestinal bleeding in adults and children. Ann Intensive Care 2012;2:46.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

PEPTIC Investigators for the Australian and New Zealand Intensive Care Society Clinical Trials Group, Alberta Health Services Critical Care Strategic Clinical Network, the Irish Critical Care Trials Group; Young, PJ, Bagshaw, SM, Forbes, AB, et al. Effect of stress ulcer prophylaxis with proton pump inhibitors vs histamine-2 receptor blockers on in-hospital mortality among ICU patients receiving invasive mechanical ventilation: the PEPTIC randomized clinical trial. JAMA 2020;323:616–26.Google Scholar

Siau, K, Chapman, W, Sharma, N, et al. Management of acute upper gastrointestinal bleeding: an update for the general physician. J R Coll Physicians Edinb 2017;47:218–30.Google Scholar

Tripathi, D, Stanley, AJ, Hayes, PC, et al. UK guidelines on the management of variceal haemorrhage in cirrhotic patients. Gut 2015;64:1680–704.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Wang, Y, Ye, Z, Ge, L, et al. Efficacy and safety of gastrointestinal bleeding prophylaxis in critically ill patients: systematic review and network meta-analysis. BMJ 2019;367:l16744.Google Scholar

Banks, PA, Bollen, TL, Dervenis, C, et al. Classification of acute pancreatitis–2012: revision of the Atlanta classification and definitions by international consensus. Gut 2013;62:102.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Forsmark, C, Vege, SS, Wilcox, CM. Acute pancreatitis. N Engl J Med 2016;375:1972–81.Google Scholar

Meier, R, Ockenga, J, Pertkiewicz, M, et al. ESPEN Guidelines on enteral nutrition: pancreas. Clin Nutr 2006;25:275–84.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Mirtallo, JM, Forbes, A, McClave, SA, et al. International consensus guidelines for nutrition therapy in pancreatitis. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr 2012;36:284–91.Google Scholar

Sah, R, Dawra, RK, Saluja, AK. New insights into the pathogenesis of pancreatitis. Curr Opin Gastroenterol 2013;29:523–30.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Doherty, GM. The acute abdomen. Loeb, MS, Davis, K (eds). Current Diagnosis and Treatment: Surgery, 13th edn. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill; 2010. pp. 451–63.Google Scholar

Ellis, H, Calne, R, Watson, C. Peritonitis. In: Ellis, H, Calne, R, Watson, C (eds). Lecture Notes: General Surgery, 11th edn. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing; 2006. pp. 231–6.Google Scholar

Karvellas, CJ, Abraldes, JG, Arabi, YM, et al.; Cooperative Antimicrobial Therapy of Septic Shock (CATSS) Database Research Group. Appropriate and timely antimicrobial therapy in cirrhotic patients with spontaneous bacterial peritonitis-associated septic shock: a retrospective cohort study. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2015;41:747–57.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Mastoraki, A, Mastoraki, S, Tziava, E, et al. Mesenteric ischemia: pathogenesis and challenging diagnostic and therapeutic modalities. World J Gastrointest Pathophysiol 2016;7:125–30.Google Scholar

Strachan, S, Soni, N. Intra-abdominal sepsis. In: Waldmann, C, Soni, N, Rhodes, A (eds). Oxford Desk Reference: Critical Care. New York, NY: Oxford University Press; 2008. p. 336.Google Scholar

Bauer, A, Schwarz, NT, Moore, B, Türler, A, Kalff, JC. Ileus in critical illness: mechanisms and management. Curr Opin Crit Care 2002:8;152–7.Google Scholar

Garden, OJ, Parks, RW. Principles and Practice of Surgery, 7th edn. Edinburgh: Elsevier; 2018.Google Scholar

Martindale, RG, McClave, SA, Vanek, VW, et al.; American College of Critical Care Medicine; ASPEN Board of Directors. 2009 Guidelines for the provision and assessment of nutrition support therapy in the adult critically ill patient: Society of Critical Care Medicine and American Society for Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition: executive summary. Crit Care Med 2009;37:1757–61.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Paulson, EK, Thompson, WM. Review of small-bowel obstruction: the diagnosis and when to worry. Radiology 2015;275;332–42.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Stevens, P, Dark, P. Ileus and obstruction in the critically ill. In: Webb, A, Angus, D, Finfer, S, Gattinoni, L, Singer, M (eds). Oxford Textbook of Critical Care, 2nd edn. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 2016. pp. 856–9.Google Scholar

Berry, N, Fletcher, S. Abdominal compartment syndrome. Contin Educ Anaesth Crit Care Pain 2012;12:110–17.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Hunt, L, Frost, SA, Hillman, K, Newton, PJ, Davidson, PM. Management of intra-abdominal hypertension and abdominal compartment syndrome: a review. J Trauma Manag Outcomes 2014;8:2.Google Scholar

Kirkpatrick, AW, Roberts, DJ, De, Waele J, et al. Intra-abdominal hypertension and the abdominal compartment syndrome: updated consensus definitions and clinical practice guidelines from the World Society of the Abdominal Compartment Syndrome. Intensive Care Med 2013;39:1190–206.Google Scholar

Santa-Teresa, P, Muñoz, J, Montero, I, et al. Incidence and prognosis of intra-abdominal hypertension in critically ill medical patients: a prospective epidemiological study. Ann Intensive Care 2012;2:S3.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Attia, J, Ray, JG, Cook, DJ, Douketis, J, Ginsberg, JS, Geerts, WH. Deep vein thrombosis and its prevention in critically ill adults. Arch Intern Med 2001;161:1268–79.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Konstantinides, SV, Torbicki, A, Agnelli, G, et al. 2014 ESC Guidelines on the diagnosis and management of acute pulmonary embolism. Eur Heart J 2014;35:3033–80.Google Scholar

Konstantinides, SV, Vicaut, E, Danays, T, et al. Impact of thrombolytic therapy on the long-term outcome of intermediate-risk pulmonary embolism. J Am Coll Cardiol 2017;69:1536–44.Google Scholar

Meyer, G, Vieillard-Baron, A, Planquette, B. Recent advances in the management of pulmonary embolism: focus on the critically ill patients. Ann Intensive Care 2016;6:19.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Pollack, CV, Schreiber, D, Goldhaber, SZ, et al. Clinical characteristics, management, and outcomes of patients diagnosed with acute pulmonary embolism in the emergency department: initial report of EMPEROR (Multicenter Emergency Medicine Pulmonary Embolism in the Real World Registry). J Am Coll Cardiol 2011;57:700–6.Google Scholar

British Thoracic Society. 2021. BTS/SIGN British guideline on the management of asthma. www.brit-thoracic.org.uk/quality-improvement/guidelines/asthma/Google Scholar

Busse, WW, Calhoun, WF, Sedgwick, JD. Mechanism of airway inflammation in asthma. Am Rev Respir Dis 1993;147(6 Pt 2):S20–4.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

European Respiratory Society. EUROPEAN LUNG white book. www.erswhitebook.orgGoogle Scholar

Gibbison, B, Griggs, K, Mukherjee, M, et al. Ten years of asthma admissions to adult critical care units in England and Wales. BMJ Open 2013;3:e003420.Google Scholar

Horwitz, RJ, Busse, WW. Inflammation and asthma. Clin Chest Med 1995;16:583–602.Google Scholar

Lim, WJ, Akram, RM, Carson, KV, et al. Non-invasive positive pressure ventilation for treatment of respiratory failure due to severe acute exacerbations of asthma. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2012;12:CD004360.Google Scholar

OECD and European Union. Health at a Glance: Europe 2016. State of Health in the EU Cycle. Paris: OECD Publishing; 2016. www.oecd-ilibrary.org/social-issues-migration-health/health-at-a-glance-europe-2016_9789264265592-enGoogle Scholar

Office for National Statistics. 2016. Asthma deaths in England and Wales, 2001 to 2015 occurrences. www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/birthsdeathsandmarriages/deaths/adhocs/005955asthmadeathsinenglandandwales2001to2015occurrencesGoogle Scholar

Royal College of Physicians. 2015. Why asthma still kills. National Review of Asthma Deaths. www.rcplondon.ac.uk/projects/outputs/why-asthma-still-killsGoogle Scholar

Davidson, AC, Banham, S, Elliott, M, et al. BTS/ICS guideline for the ventilatory management of acute hypercapnic respiratory failure in adults. Thorax 2016;71:ii1–ii35.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Global Initiative for Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease. goldcopd.orgGoogle Scholar

National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. 2010. Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease in over 16s: diagnosis and management. Clinical guideline [CG101]. www.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg101Google Scholar

Soler-Cataluña, JJ, Martínez-García, MA, Román, Sánchez P, Salcedo, E, Navarro, M, Ochando, R. Severe acute exacerbations and mortality in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Thorax 2005; 60:925–31.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Kalil, AC, Metersky, ML, Klompas, M, et al. Management of adults with hospital-acquired and ventilator-associated pneumonia: 2016 clinical practice guidelines by the Infectious Diseases Society of America and the American Thoracic Society. Clin Infect Dis 2016;63:e61–111.Google Scholar

Kohno, S, Seki, M, Takehara, K, et al. Prediction of requirement for mechanical ventilation in community-acquired pneumonia with acute respiratory failure: a multicenter prospective study. Respiration 2013;85:27–35.Google Scholar

Mackenzie, G. The definition and classification of pneumonia. Pneumonia (Nathan) 2016;8:14.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Metlay, JP, Fine, MJ. Testing strategies in the initial management of patients with community-acquired pneumonia. Ann Intern Med 2003;138:109–18.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

World Health Organization. 2016. ICD-10 Version: 2016. apps.who.int/classifications/icd10/browse/2016/enGoogle Scholar

Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome Network; Brower, RG, Matthay, MA, Morris, A, et al. Ventilation with lower tidal volumes as compared with traditional tidal volumes for acute lung injury and the acute respiratory distress syndrome. N Engl J Med 2000;342:1301–8.Google ScholarPubMed

Baig, S, Ahmad, S, Devogel, N, et al. Risk factors for the development of acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) in patients with pneumonia, a nationwide retrospective study using the Nationwide Inpatient Sample (NIS) Database from year 2002–2012. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2016;193:A1826.Google Scholar

Bellani, G, Laffey, JG, Pham, T, et al. Epidemiology, patterns of care, and mortality for patients with acute respiratory distress syndrome in intensive care units in 50 countries. JAMA 2016;315:788–800.Google Scholar

Guérin, C, Reignier, J, Richard, J-C, et al. Prone positioning in severe acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS). N Engl J Med 2013;368:2159–68.Google Scholar

National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome (ARDS) Clinical Trials Network; Wiedemann, HP, Wheeler, AP, Bernard, GR, et al. Comparison of two fluid-management strategies in acute lung injury. N Engl J Med 2006;354:2564–75.Google ScholarPubMed

Papazian, L, Forel, JM, Gacouin, A, et al. Neuromuscular blockers in early acute respiratory distress syndrome. N Engl J Med 2010;363:1107–16.Google Scholar

Ranieri, VM, Rubenfeld, GD, Thompson, BT, et al. Acute respiratory distress syndrome: the Berlin definition. JAMA 2012;307:2526–33.Google Scholar

Retamal, J, Libuy, J, Jiménez, M, et al. Preliminary study of ventilation with 4 ml/kg tidal volume in acute respiratory distress syndrome: feasibility and effects on cyclic recruitment – derecruitment and hyperinflation. Crit Care 2013;17:R16.Google Scholar

Gandhi, SK, Powers, JC, Nomeir, AM, et al. The pathogenesis of acute pulmonary oedema associated with hypertension. N Engl J Med 2001;344:17–22.Google Scholar

Griffiths, MJD, McAuley, DF, Perkins, GD, et al. Guidelines on the management of acute respiratory distress syndrome. BMJ Open Respir Res 2019;6:e000420.Google Scholar

Patel, BK, Wolfe, KS, Pohlman, AS, Hall, JB, Kress, JP. Effect of non-invasive ventilation delivered by helmet vs facemask on the rate of endotracheal intubation in patients with acute respiratory distress syndrome: a randomised clinical trial. JAMA 2016;14:2435–41.Google Scholar

Ponikowski, P, Voors, AA, Ankers, SD, et al. 2016 ESC Guidelines for the diagnosis and treatment of acute and chronic heart failure: The Task Force for the diagnosis and treatment of acute and chronic heart failure of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC). Developed with the special contribution of the Heart Failure Association (HFA) of the ESC. Eur Heart J 2016;37;2129–200.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Vital, FMR, Ladeira, MT, Atallah, AN. Non-invasive positive pressure ventilation (CPAP or bilevel NPPV) for cardiogenic pulmonary oedema). Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2013;5:CD005351.Google Scholar

Ware, LB, Matthay, MA. Acute pulmonary oedema. N Engl J Med 2005;353:2788–96.Google Scholar

Hoeper, MM, Galie, N, Murali, S, et al. Outcome after cardiopulmonary resuscitation in patients with pulmonary arterial hypertension. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2002;165:341–4.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Hoeper, MM, Granton, J. Intensive care unit management of patients with severe pulmonary hypertension and right heart failure. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2011;184:1114–24.Google Scholar

Ishikawa, S, Miyauchi, T, Sakai, S, et al. Elevated levels of plasma endothelin-1 in young patients with pulmonary hypertension caused by congenital heart disease are decreased after successful surgical repair. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 1995;110:271–3.Google Scholar

Rubin, LJ, Hopkins, W. Clinical features and diagnosis of pulmonary hypertension of unclear etiology in adults. UpToDate. Waltham, MA: Wolters Kluwer Health. www.uptodate.com/contents/8249Google Scholar

Simonneau, G, Gatzoulis, MA, Adatia, I, et al. Updated clinical classification of pulmonary hypertension. J Am Coll Cardiol 2013;62(25 Suppl):D34–41.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Zamanian, RT, Haddad, F, Doyle, RL, Weinacker, AB. Management strategies for patients with pulmonary hypertension in the intensive care unit. Crit Care Med 2007;35:2037–50.Google Scholar

Harper, NJN, Dixon, T, Dugué, P, et al.; Working Party of the Association of Anaesthetists of Great Britain and Ireland. Suspected anaphylactic reactions associated with anaesthesia. Anaesthesia 2009;64:199–211.Google Scholar

Muñoz-Cano, R, Pascal, M, Araujo, G, et al. Mechanisms, cofactors, and augmenting factors involved in anaphylaxis. Front Immunol 2017;26:1193.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Resuscitation Council UK. 2021. Emergency treatment of anaphylactic reactions: guidelines for healthcare providers. www.resus.org.uk/library/additional-guidance/guidance-anaphylaxis/emergency-treatmentGoogle Scholar

Simons, FE, Ardusso, LR, Bilo, MB, et al. World Allergy Organization guidelines for the assessment and management of anaphylaxis. World Allergy Organ J 2011;4:13–37.Google Scholar

Chaplin, D. Overview of the human immune response. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2006;117:S430–5.Google Scholar

McGoughlin, S, Padiglione, AA. Host defence mechanisms and immunodeficiency disorders. In: Bersten, A, Soni, N (eds). Oh’s Intensive Care Manual, 7th edn. Oxford: Butterworth Heinemann; 2014. pp. 703–9.Google Scholar

Nikita, R, Dinakar, C. Overview of immunodeficiency disorders. Immunol Allergy Clin North Am 2015;35:599–623.Google Scholar

Andrade, HB, Shinotsuka, CR, da Silva, IRF, et al. Highly active antiretroviral therapy for critically ill HIV patients: a systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS One 2017;12:e0186968.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. HIV basics. www.cdc.gov/hiv/basics/index.htmlGoogle Scholar

HIVinfo.NIH.gov. Clinical guidelines [guidelines on use of anti-retroviral agents in adults and adolescents living with HIV]. aidsinfo.nih.gov/guidelinesGoogle Scholar

Huang, L, Quartin, A, Jones, D, et al. Intensive care of patients with HIV infection. N Engl J Med 2006;355:173–81.Google Scholar

Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS). 2019. UNAIDS data 2019. www.unaids.org/sites/default/files/media_asset/2019-UNAIDS-data_en.pdfGoogle Scholar

Angus, D, van der Poll, T. Severe sepsis and septic shock. N Engl J Med 2013;369:840–51.Google Scholar

Gyawali, B, Ramakrishna, K, Dhamoon, AS. Sepsis: the evolution in definition, pathophysiology, and management. SAGE Open Med 2019;7:1–13.Google Scholar

Howell, MD, Davis, AM. Management of sepsis and septic shock. JAMA 2017;317:847–8.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Opal, SM, Wittebole, X. Biomarkers of infection and sepsis. Crit Care Clin 2020;36:11–22.Google Scholar

Singer, M, Deutschman, CS, Seymour, CW, et al. The Third International consensus definitions for sepsis and septic shock (Sepsis-3). JAMA 2016;315:801–10.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Marshall, JC. Measuring organ dysfunction. Med Klin Intensivmed Notfmed 2020;115(Suppl 1):15–20.Google Scholar

Ramírez, M. Multiple organ dysfunction syndrome. Curr Probl Pediatr Adolesc Health Care 2013;43:273–7.Google Scholar

Singer, M. The role of mitochondrial dysfunction in sepsis-induced multi-organ failure. Virulence 2014;5:66–72.Google Scholar

Varela, ML, Mogildea, M, Moreno, I, et al. Acute inflammation and metabolism. Inflammation 2018;41:1115–27.Google Scholar

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Healthcare-associated infections (HAIs). www.cdc.gov/hai/index.htmlGoogle Scholar

Khan, HA, Baig, FK, Mehboob, R. Nosocomial infections: epidemiology, prevention, control and surveillance. Asian Pac J Trop Biomed 2017;7:478–82.Google Scholar

Lyons, PG, Kollef, MH. Prevention of hospital-acquired pneumonia. Curr Opin Crit Care 2018;24:370–8.Google Scholar

Rigby, R, Pegram, A, Woodward, S. Hand decontamination in clinical practice: a review of the evidence. Br J Nurs 2017;26:448–51.Google Scholar

Bechar, J, Sepehripour, S, Hardwicke, J, Filobbos, G. Laboratory risk indicator for necrotising fasciitis (LRINEC) score for the assessment of early necrotising fasciitis: a systematic review of the literature. Ann R Coll Surg Engl 2017;99:341–6.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Burnham, JP, Kirby, JP, Kollef, MH. Diagnosis and management of skin and soft tissue infections in the intensive care unit: a review. Intensive Care Med 2016;42:1899–911.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Burnham, JP, Kollef, MH. Understanding toxic shock syndrome. Intensive Care Med 2015;41:1707–10.Google Scholar

Cranendonk, DR, van Vught, LA, Wiewel, MA, et al. Clinical characteristics and outcomes of patients with cellulitis requiring intensive care. JAMA Dermatol 2017;153:578–82.Google Scholar

Creamer, D, Walsh, SA, Dziewulski, P, et al. UK guidelines for the management of Stevens–Johnson syndrome/toxic epidermal necrolysis in adults 2016. Br J Dermatol 2016;174:1194–227.Google Scholar

Medical Advisory Secretariat. Pressure ulcer prevention: an evidence-based analysis. Ont Health Technol Assess Ser 2009;9:1–104.Google Scholar

National Pressure Ulcer Advisory Panel, European Pressure Ulcer Advisory Panel, Pan Pacific Pressure Injury Alliance. 2014. Prevention and treatment of pressure ulcers: quick reference guide. www.epuap.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/10/quick-reference-guide-digital-npuap-epuap-pppia-jan2016.pdfGoogle Scholar

Wong, CH, Khin, LW, Heng, KS, Tan, KC, Low, CO. The LRINEC (Laboratory Risk Indicator for Necrotizing Fasciitis) score: a tool for distinguishing necrotizing fasciitis from other soft tissue infections. Crit Care Med 2004;32:1535–41.Google Scholar

Covington, EW, Roberts, MZ, Dong, J. Procalcitonin monitoring as a guide for antimicrobial therapy: a review of current literature. Pharmacotherapy 2018;38:569–81.Google Scholar

Cunha, B, Hage, J, Schoch, P, Cunha, C, Bottone, E, Torres, D. Overview of antimicrobial therapy. In: Cunha, CB, Cunha, BA (eds). Antibiotic Essentials, 11th edn. Sudbury, MA: Jones & Bartlett; 2012. pp. 2–15.Google Scholar

Lamy, B, Dargère, S, Arendrup, MC, Parienti, J-J, Tattevin, P. How to optimize the use of blood cultures for the diagnosis of bloodstream infections? A state-of-the-art. Front Microbiol 2016;7:697.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Leekha, S, Terrell, CL, Edson, RS. General principles of antimicrobial therapy. Mayo Clin Proc 2011;86:156–67.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Vincent, J-L, Rello, J, Marshall, J, et al. International study of the prevalence and outcomes of infection in intensive care units. JAMA 2009;302:2323.Google Scholar

Cunha, B, Torres, D, Hage, J, et al. Antibiotic pearls and pitfalls and antimicrobial drug summaries. In: Cunha, CB, Cunha, BA (eds). Antibiotic Essentials, 11th edn. Sudbury, MA: Jones & Bartlett; 2012. pp. 507–718.Google Scholar

Greenwood, D, Finch, R, Davey, P, Wilcox, M. General properties of antimicrobial agents. In: Greenwood, D, Finch, R, Davey, P, Wilcox, M (eds). Antimicrobial Chemotherapy, 5th edn. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 2008. pp. 13–67.Google Scholar

Kapoor, G, Saigal, S, Elongavan, A. Action and resistance mechanisms of antibiotics: a guide for clinicians. J Anaesthesiol Clin Pharmacol 2017;33:300.Google Scholar

Berríos-Torres, SI, Umscheid, CA, Bratzler, DW, et al. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention guideline for the prevention of surgical site infection, 2017. JAMA Surg 2017;152:784.Google Scholar

de Jonge, SW, Gans, SL, Atema, JJ, Solomkin, JS, Dellinger, PE, Boermeester, MA. Timing of preoperative antibiotic prophylaxis in 54,552 patients and the risk of surgical site infection: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Medicine (Baltimore) 2017;96:e6903.Google Scholar

Greenwood, D, Finch, R, Davey, P, Wilcox, M. Resistance to antimicrobial agents. In: Greenwood, D, Finch, R, Davey, P, Wilcox, M (eds). Antimicrobial Chemotherapy, 5th edn. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 2008. pp. 119–69.Google Scholar

Vincent, J-L, Bassetti, M, François, B, et al. Advances in antibiotic therapy in the critically ill. Crit Care 2016;20:133.Google Scholar

Wright, GD. Q&A: Antibiotic resistance: where does it come from and what can we do about it? BMC Biol 2010;8:123.Google Scholar

Greenwood, D, Finch, R, Davey, P, Wilcox, M. General properties of antimicrobial agents. In: Greenwood, D, Finch, R, Davey, P, Wilcox, M (eds). Antimicrobial Chemotherapy, 5th edn. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 2008. pp. 67–77.Google Scholar

Lepak, A, Andes, D. Fungal sepsis: optimizing antifungal therapy in the critical care setting. Crit Care Clin 2011;27:123–47.Google Scholar

Moghnieh, R, Kanafani, ZA, Kanj, SS. Antifungal use in intensive care units: another uncertainty that highlights the need for precision medicine. J Thorac Dis 2016;8:E1672–5.Google Scholar

Timsit, J-F, Perner, A, Bakker, J, et al. Year in review in Intensive Care Medicine 2014: III. Severe infections, septic shock, healthcare-associated infections, highly resistant bacteria, invasive fungal infections, severe viral infections, Ebola virus disease and paediatrics. Intensive Care Med 2015;41:575–88.Google Scholar

Dandachi, D, Rodriguez-Barradas, MC. Viral pneumonia: etiologies and treatment. J Investig Med 2018;66:957–65.Google Scholar

Dobson, J, Whitley, RJ, Pocock, S, Monto, AS. Oseltamivir treatment for influenza in adults: a meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials. Lancet 2015;385:1729–37.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Greenwood, D, Finch, R, Davey, P, Wilcox, M (eds). Antimicrobial Chemotherapy, 5th edn. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 2008.Google Scholar

Kelesidis, T, Mastoris, I, Metsini, A, Tsiodras, S. How to approach and treat viral infections in ICU patients. BMC Infect Dis 2014;14:321.Google Scholar

Karnad, DR, Richards, GA, Silva, GS, et al. Tropical diseases in the ICU: a syndromic approach to diagnosis and treatment. J Crit Care 2018;46:119–26.Google Scholar

Lalloo, DG, Shingadia, D, Bell, DJ, et al. UK malaria treatment guidelines 2016. J Infect 2016;72:635–49.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Marks, M, Gupta-Wright, A, Doherty, J, et al. Managing malaria in the intensive care unit. Br J Anaesth 2014;113:910–21.Google Scholar

Public Health England. 2018. Malaria imported into the United Kingdom: 2018. Implications for those advising travellers. assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/812824/Malaria_imported_into_the_United_Kingdom_2018.pdfGoogle Scholar

Sinclair, D, Donegan, S, Isba, R, Lalloo, DG. Artesunate versus quinine for treating severe malaria. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2012;6:CD005967.Google Scholar

World Health Organization. 2021. WHO guidelines for malaria. www.who.int/publications/i/item/guidelines-for-malariaGoogle Scholar

Lipsitch, M, Donnelly, CA, Fraser, C, et al. Potential biases in estimating absolute and relative case-fatality risks during outbreaks. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2015;9:e0003846.Google Scholar

National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. 2020. COVID-19 rapid guideline: critical care in adults. NICE guideline [NG159]. www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng159Google Scholar

Siddiqu, HK, Mehra, MR. COVID-19 illness in native and immunosuppressed states: a clinical-therapeutic staging proposal. J Heart Lung Transplant 2020;39:405–7.Google Scholar

The Faculty of Intensive Care Medicine. 2020. FICM Position Statement and Provisional Guidance: Recovery and Rehabilitation for Patients Following the Pandemic. www.ficm.ac.uk/sites/ficm/files/documents/2021-10/ficm_recovery_and_rehab_provisional_guidance.pdfGoogle Scholar

World Health Organization. 2018. Managing epidemics: key facts about major deadly diseases. apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/272442Google Scholar

Wu, Z, McGoogan, JM. Characteristics of and important lessons from the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) outbreak in China: summary of a report of 72 314 cases from the Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention. JAMA 2020;323:1239–42.Google Scholar

Rasimas, JJ, Sinclair, CM. Assessment and management of toxidromes in the critical care unit. Crit Care Clin 2017;33:521–41.Google Scholar

Roberts, TN, Thompson, JP. Illegal substances in anaesthetic and intensive care practices. Contin Educ Anaesth Crit Care Pain 2013;13:42–6.Google Scholar

Wyatt, J, Illingworth, R, Graham, CA, Hogg, K, Robertson, C, Clancy, M. Toxicology. In: Wyatt, J, Illingworth, R, Graham, C, Hogg, K, Robertson, C, Clancy, M (eds). Oxford Handbook of Emergency Medicine, 4th edn. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 2012. pp. 179–217.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Zimmerman, JL. Poisonings and overdoses in the intensive care unit: general and specific management issues. Crit Care Med 2003;31:2794–801.Google Scholar

Chu, J, Johnston, TA, Geoghegan, J; Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists. 2019. Maternal collapse in pregnancy and the puerperium. Green-top guideline No. 56. obgyn.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1471-0528.15995Google Scholar

Green, LJ, Mackillop, LH, Salvi, D, et al. Gestation-specific vital sign reference ranges in pregnancy. Obstet Gynecol 2020;135:653–64.Google Scholar

Greer, O, Shah, NM, Johnson, MR. Maternal sepsis update: current management and controversies. The Obstetrician & Gynaecologist 2020;22:45–55.Google Scholar

Knight, M, Bunch, K, Tuffnell, D, et al.; MBRRACE-UK (eds). Saving lives, improving mothers’ care. Lessons learned to inform maternity care from the UK and Ireland Confidential Enquiries into Maternal Deaths and Morbidity 2017–19. Oxford: National Perinatal Epidemiology Unit, University of Oxford; 2021. www.npeu.ox.ac.uk/assets/downloads/mbrrace-uk/reports/maternal-report-2021/MBRRACE-UK_Maternal_Report_2021_-_FINAL_-_WEB_VERSION.pdfGoogle Scholar

Knight, M, Bunch, K, Vousden, N, et al.; UK Obstetric Surveillance System SARS-CoV-2 Infection in Pregnancy Collaborative Group. Characteristics and outcomes of pregnant women admitted to hospital with confirmed SARS-CoV-2 infection in UK: national population based cohort study. BMJ 2020;369:m2107.Google Scholar

Mushambi, MC, Kinsella, SM, Popat, M, et al. Obstetric Anaesthetists’ Asociation and Difficult Airway Society guidelines for the management of difficult and failed tracheal intubation in obstetrics. Anaesthesia 2015;70:1286–306.Google Scholar

Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists. 2011. Antepartum haemorrhage. Green-top guideline No. 63. www.rcog.org.uk/globalassets/documents/guidelines/gtg_63.pdfGoogle Scholar

Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists. 2012. Bacterial sepsis in pregnancy. Green-top guideline No. 64a. www.rcog.org.uk/globalassets/documents/guidelines/gtg_64a.pdfGoogle Scholar

Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists. 2012. Bacterial sepsis following pregnancy. Green-top guideline No. 64b. www.rcog.org.uk/globalassets/documents/guidelines/gtg_64b.pdfGoogle Scholar

Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists. 2015. Reducing the risk of venous thromboembolism during pregnancy and puerperium. Green-top guideline No. 37a. www.rcog.org.uk/globalassets/documents/guidelines/gtg-37a.pdfGoogle Scholar

Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists. 2016. Postpartum haemorrhage, prevention and management. Green-top guideline No. 52. www.rcog.org.uk/en/guidelines-research-services/guidelines/gtg52/Google Scholar

Dennis, AT, Solnordal, CB. Acute pulmonary oedema in pregnant women. Anaesthesia 2012;67:646–59.Google Scholar

Knight, M, Bunch, K, Tuffnell, D, et al.; MBRRACE-UK (eds). Saving lives, improving mothers’ care. Lessons learned to inform maternity care from the UK and Ireland Confidential Enquiries into Maternal Deaths and Morbidity 2017–19. Oxford: National Perinatal Epidemiology Unit, University of Oxford; 2021. www.npeu.ox.ac.uk/assets/downloads/mbrrace-uk/reports/maternal-report-2021/MBRRACE-UK_Maternal_Report_2021_-_FINAL_-_WEB_VERSION.pdfGoogle Scholar

National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. 2019. Hypertension in pregnancy: diagnosis and management. NICE guideline [NG133]. www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng133/chapter/RecommendationsGoogle Scholar

Spasovski, G, Vanholder, R, Allolio, B, et al.; Hyponatraemia Guideline Development Group. Clinical practice guideline on diagnosis and treatment of hyponatraemia. Eur J Endocrinol 2014;170:G1–47. Erratum in: Eur J Endocrinol 2014;171:X1.Google Scholar

The Regulation and Quality Improvement Authority. 2017. Guideline for the prevention, diagnosis and management of hyponatraemia in labour and the immediate postpartum period. www.rqia.org.uk/RQIA/files/df/dfd57ddd-ceb3-4c0d-9719-8e33e179d0ff.pdfGoogle Scholar

Knight, M, Bunch, K, Tuffnell, D, et al.; MBRRACE-UK (eds). Saving lives, improving mothers’ care. Lessons learned to inform maternity care from the UK and Ireland Confidential Enquiries into Maternal Deaths and Morbidity 2017–19. Oxford: National Perinatal Epidemiology Unit, University of Oxford; 2021. www.npeu.ox.ac.uk/assets/downloads/mbrrace-uk/reports/maternal-report-2021/MBRRACE-UK_Maternal_Report_2021_-_FINAL_-_WEB_VERSION.pdfGoogle Scholar

Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists. 2017. Management of inherited bleeding disorders in pregnancy. Green-top guideline No. 71. obgyn.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/1471-0528.14592Google Scholar

Royal College of Anaesthetists. 2018. Care of the critically ill woman in childbirth; enhanced maternal care. www.rcoa.ac.uk/sites/default/files/documents/2019-09/EMC-Guidelines2018.pdfGoogle Scholar

Simpson, NB, Shankar-Hari, M, Rowan, KM, et al. Maternal risk modelling in critical care – development of a multivariable risk prediction model for death and prolonged intensive care. Crit Care Med 2020;48:663–72.Google Scholar

Baker, P, Platton, S, Gibson, C, et al.; British Society for Haematology, Haemostasis and Thrombosis Task Force. Guidelines on the laboratory aspects of assays used in haemostasis and thrombosis. Br J Haematol 2020;191:347–62.Google Scholar

Curry, NS, Davenport, R, Pavord, S, et al. The use of viscoelastic haemostatic assays in the management of major bleeding: a British Society for Haematology Guideline. Br J Haematol 2018;182:789–806.Google Scholar

Levi, M, Toh, CH, Thachil, J, Watson, HG. Guidelines for the diagnosis and management of disseminated intravascular coagulation. British Committee for Standards in Haematology. Br J Haematol 2009;145:24–33.Google Scholar

Thachil, J, Hill, Q (eds). Haematology in Critical Care: A Practical Handbook. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons; 2014.Google Scholar

Scully, M, Hunt, BJ, Benjamin, S, et al.; British Committee for Standards in Haematology. Guidelines on the diagnosis and management of thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura and other thrombotic microangiopathies. Br J Haematol 2012;158:323–35.Google Scholar

Thachil, J, Hill, Q (eds). Haematology in Critical Care: A Practical Handbook. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons; 2014.Google Scholar

Watson, H, Davidson, S, Keeling, D; Haemostasis and Thrombosis Task Force of the British Committee for Standards in Haematology. Guidelines on the diagnosis and management of heparin-induced thrombocytopenia: second edition. Br J Haematol 2012;159:528–40.Google Scholar

Keeling, D, Tait, RC, Watson, H; British Committee of Standards for Haematology. Peri-operative management of anticoagulation and antiplatelet therapy. Br J Haematol 2016;175:602–13.Google Scholar

Kitchen, S, Gray, E, Mackie, I, Baglin, T, Makris, M; BCSH Committee. Measurement of non-coumarin anticoagulants and their effects on tests of haemostasis: guidance from the British Committee for Standards in Haematology. Br J Haematol 2014;166:830–41.Google Scholar

Makris, M, Van Veen, JJ, Tait, CR, Mumford, AD, Laffan, M; British Committee for Standards in Haematology. Guideline on the management of bleeding in patients on antithrombotic agents. Br J Haematol 2013;160:35–46.Google Scholar

Thachil, J, Hill, Q (eds). Haematology in Critical Care: A Practical Handbook. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons; 2014.Google Scholar

Estcourt, LJ, Birchall, J, Allard, S, et al.; British Committee for Standards in Haematology. Guidelines for the use of platelet transfusions. Br J Haematol 2017;176:365–94.Google Scholar

Oteng-Ntim, E, Pavord, S, Howard, R, et al.; British Society for Haematology Guideline. Management of sickle cell disease in pregnancy. A British Society for Haematology Guideline. Br J Haematol 2021;194:980–95.Google Scholar

Retter, A, Wyncoll, D, Pearse, R, et al.; British Committee for Standards in Haematology. Guidelines on the management of anaemia and red cell transfusion in adult critically ill patients. Br J Haematol 2013;160:445–64.Google Scholar

Schwartz, J, Winters, JL, Padmanabhan, A, et al. Guidelines on the use of therapeutic apheresis in clinical practice-evidence-based approach from the Writing Committee of the American Society for Apheresis: the sixth special issue. J Clin Apher 2013;28:145–284.Google Scholar

Shander, A, Javidroozi, M, Lobel, G. Patient blood management in the intensive care unit. Transfus Med Rev 2017;31:264–71.Google Scholar

Foot, C, Hickson, L. Leadership skills in the ICU. In: Webb, A, Angus, D, Finfer, S, Gattinoni, L, Singer, M (eds). Oxford Textbook of Critical Care, 2nd edn. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 2016. pp. 64–70.Google Scholar

Intensive Care Society. 2001. Guidelines for the transport of the critically ill adult. Standards and guidelines. www.baccn.org/static/uploads/resources/ICSStandardsTransport.pdfGoogle Scholar

Lee, DW, Santomasso, BD, Locke, FL, et al. ASTCT consensus grading for cytokine release syndrome and neurologic toxicity associated with immune effector cells. Biol Blood Marrow Transplant 2019;25:625–38.Google Scholar

Matthey, F, Parker, A, Rule, SA, et al. Facilities for the treatment of adults with haematological malignancies – ‘levels of care’: BCSH Haemato-Oncology Task Force 2009. Hematology 2010;15:63–9.Google Scholar

Thachil, J, Hill, Q (eds). Haematology in Critical Care. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell; 2014.Google Scholar

Townsend, WM, Holroyd, A, Pearce, R, et al. Improved intensive care unit survival for critically ill allogeneic haematopoietic stem cell transplant recipients following reduced intensity conditioning. Br J Haematol 2013;161:578–86.Google Scholar

Wise, MP, Barnes, RA, Baudouin, SV, et al.; British Committee for Standards in Haematology. Guidelines on the management and admission to intensive care of critically ill adult patients with haematological malignancy in the UK. Br J Haematol 2015;171:179–88.Google Scholar

Estcourt, LJ, Birchall, J, Allard, S, et al.; British Committee for Standards in Haematology. Guidelines for the use of platelet transfusions. Br J Haematol 2017;176:365–94.Google Scholar

Hoffman, M, Monroe, DM. A cell-based model of hemostasis. Thromb Haemost 2001;85:958–65.Google Scholar

Holcomb, JB, Tilley, BC, Baraniuk, S, et al. Transfusion of plasma, platelets, and red blood cells in a 1:1:1 vs a 1:1:2 ratio and mortality in patients with severe trauma: the PROPPR randomized clinical trial. JAMA 2015;313:471–82.Google Scholar

Hunt, B. Bleeding and coagulopathies in critical care. N Engl J Med 2014;370:847–59.Google Scholar

Retter, A, Barrett, NA. The management of abnormal haemostasis in the ICU. Anaesthesia 2015;70(Suppl 1):121–7, e40–1.Google Scholar

Bradshaw, K, Smith, M. Disorders of sodium balance after brain injury. Contin Educ Anaesth Crit Care Pain 2008;8:129–33.Google Scholar

Cecconi, M, Hochrieser, H, Chew, M, et al. Preoperative abnormalities in serum sodium concentrations are associated with higher in-hospital mortality in patients undergoing major surgery. Br J Anaesth 2016;116:63–9.Google Scholar

Ellison, DH, Berl, T. The syndrome of inappropriate antidiuresis. N Engl J Med 2007;356:2064–72.Google Scholar

Verbalis, JG, Goldsmith, SR, Greenberg, A, et al. Diagnosis, evaluation and treatment of hyponatraemia: expert panel recommendations. Am J Med 2013;126:S1–42.Google Scholar

Clase, CM, Carrero, JJ, Ellison, DH, et al.; Conference Participants. Potassium homeostasis and management of dyskalemia in kidney diseases: conclusions from a Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes (KDIGO) Controversies Conference. Kidney Int 2020;97:42–61.Google Scholar

Cook, S-C, Thomas, M, Nolan, J, Parr, M. Potassium. In: Cook, S-C, Thomas, M, Nolan, J, Parr, M (eds). Key Topics in Critical Care. London: JP Medical Publishers; 2014. pp. 273–5.Google Scholar

National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. 2013. Intravenous fluid therapy in adults in hospital. Clinical guideline [CG174]. www.nice.org.uk/guidance/cg174Google Scholar

Parikh, M, Webb, ST. Cations: potassium, calcium and magnesium. Contin Educ Anaesth Crit Care Pain 2012;12:195–8.Google Scholar

Aguillera, IM, Vaughan, RS. Calcium and the anaesthetist. Anaesthesia 2000;55:779–90.Google Scholar

Bushinsky, DA, Monk, RD. Calcium. Lancet 1998;352:306–11.Google Scholar

Parikh, M, Webb, ST. Cations: potassium, calcium and magnesium. Contin Educ Anaesth Crit Care Pain 2012;12:195–8.Google Scholar

British Thoracic Society. 2021. BTS/SIGN British guideline on the management of asthma. www.brit-thoracic.org.uk/quality-improvement/guidelines/asthma/Google Scholar

Parikh, M, Webb, ST. Cations: potassium, calcium and magnesium. Contin Educ Anaesth Crit Care Pain 2012;12:195–8.Google Scholar

The Magpie Trial Collaborative Group. Do women with pre-eclampsia, and their babies, benefit from magnesium sulphate? The Magpie Trial: a randomised, placebo-controlled trial. Lancet 2002;359:1877–90.Google Scholar

Weisinger, JR, Bellorín-Font, E. Magnesium and phosphorus. Lancet 1998;352:391–6.Google Scholar

Gaasbeek, A, Meinders, AE. Hypophosphatemia: an update on its etiology and treatment. Am J Med 2005;118:1094–101.Google Scholar

Penido, MG, Alon, US. Phosphate homeostasis and its role in bone health. Pediatr Nephrol 2012;27:2039–48.Google Scholar

Wadsworth, RL, Siddiqui, S. Phosphate homeostasis in critical care. BJA Educ 2016;16:305–9.Google Scholar

Weisinger, JR, Bellorín-Font, E. Magnesium and phosphorus. Lancet 1998;352:391–6.Google Scholar

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Diabetes data and statistics. www.cdc.gov/diabetes/dataGoogle Scholar

Joint British Diabetes Societies Inpatient Care Group. 2013. The management of diabetic ketoacidosis (DKA) in adults, September 2013. www.diabetes.org.ukGoogle Scholar

Scott, AR; Joint British Diabetes Societies (JBDS) for Inpatient Care; JBDS hyperosmolar hyperglycaemic guidelines group. Management of hyperosmolar hyperglycaemic state in adults with diabetes. Diabet Med 2015;32:714-24.Google Scholar

[No authors listed]. Use of glycated haemoglobin (HbA1c) in the diagnosis of diabetes mellitus: abbreviated Report of a WHO Consultation. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2011.Google Scholar

Fenske, W, Stork, S, Koschker, AC, et al. Value of fractional uric acid excretion in differential diagnosis of hyponatremic patients on diuretics. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2008;93:2991–7.Google Scholar

Hannon, M, Thompson, CJ. The syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone: prevalence, causes and consequences. Eur J Endocrinol 2010;162:S5–12.Google Scholar

Spasovski, G, Vanholder, R, Allolio, B, et al. Clinical practice guideline on diagnosis and treatment of hyponatraemia. Eur J Endocrinol 2014;170:G1.Google Scholar

Sterns, RH, Hix, JK, Silver, SM. Management of hyponatremia in the ICU. Chest 2013;144:672–9.Google Scholar

Verbalis, JG, Greenberg, A, Burst, V, et al. Diagnosing and treating the syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone secretion. Am J Med 2016;129:537.Google Scholar

Bhasin, B, Velez, JC. Evaluation of polyuria: the roles of solute loading and water diuresis. Am J Kidney Dis 2016;67:507–11.Google Scholar

Bockenhauer, D, Bichet, DG. Pathophysiology, diagnosis and management of nephrogenic diabetes insipidus. Nat Rev Nephrol 2015;11:576.Google Scholar

Fenske, W, Allolio, B. Current state and future perspectives in the diagnosis of diabetes insipidus: a clinical review. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2012;97:3426–37.Google Scholar

Robertson, GL. Diabetes insipidus: differential diagnosis and management. Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab 2016;30:205–18.Google Scholar

Timper, K, Fenske, W, Kühn, F, et al. Diagnostic accuracy of copeptin in the differential diagnosis of the polyuriapolydipsia syndrome: a prospective multicenter study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2015;100:2268.Google Scholar

Akamizu, T, Satoh, T, Isozaki, O, et al.; Japan Thyroid Association. Diagnostic criteria, clinical features, and incidence of thyroid storm based on nationwide surveys. Thyroid 2012;22:661–79.Google Scholar

Burch, HB, Wartofsky, L. Life-threatening thyrotoxicosis. Thyrotoxic storm. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am 1993;22:263–77.Google Scholar

Nayak, B, Burman, K. Thyrotoxicosis and thyroid storm. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am 2006;35:663–86, vii.Google Scholar

Annane, D, Sebille, V, Charpentier, C, et al. Effect of treatment with low doses of hydrocortisone and fludrocortisone on mortality in patients with septic shock. JAMA 2002;288:862–71.Google Scholar

Messotten, D, Vanhorebeek, I, Van den Berghe, G. The altered adrenal axis and treatment with glucocorticoids during critical illness. Nat Clin Pract Endocrinol Metab 2008;4:496–505.Google Scholar

Rhodes, A, Evans, LE, Alhazzani, W, et al. Surviving Sepsis Campaign: international guidelines for management of sepsis and septic shock 2016. Crit Care Med 2017;45:486–552.Google Scholar

Sprung, CL, Annane, D, Keh, D, et al. Hydrocortisone therapy for patients with septic shock. N Engl J Med 2008;358:111–24.Google Scholar

Venkatash, B, Finfer, S, Cohen, J, et al. Adjunctive glucocorticoid therapy in patients with septic shock. N Engl J Med 2018;378:797–808.Google Scholar

Carney, N, Totten, AM, O’Reilly, C, et al. 2016. Guidelines for the management of severe traumatic brain injury, 4th edn. braintrauma.org/uploads/13/06/Guidelines_for_Management_of_Severe_TBI_4th_Edition.pdfGoogle Scholar

Cooper, DJ, Rosenfeld, JV, Murray, L, et al. Decompressive craniectomy in diffuse traumatic brain injury. N Engl J Med 2011;364:1493–502.Google Scholar

Hawthorne, C, Piper, I. Monitoring of intracranial pressure in patients with traumatic brain injury. Front Neurol 2014;5:121.Google Scholar

Hutchinson, PJ, Kolias, AG, Timofeev, IS, et al. Trial of decompressive craniectomy for traumatic intracranial hypertension. N Engl J Med 2016;375:1119–30.Google Scholar

Stocchetti, N, Carbonara, M, Citerio, G, et al. Severe traumatic brain injury: targeted management in the intensive care unit. Lancet Neurol 2017;16:452–64.Google Scholar

Ardekian, L, Samet, N, Shoshani, Y. Life threatening bleeding following maxillofacial trauma. J Craniomaxillofac Surg 1993;21:336–40.Google Scholar

Bajwa, JSB, Kaur, J, Singh, A, et al. Clinical and critical care concerns of craniofacial trauma: a retrospective study in a tertiary care institute. Natl J Maxillofac Surg 2012;3:133–8.Google Scholar

Le Fort, R. Experimental study of fractures of the upper jaw. Rev Chir Paris 1901;23:208–27 [reprint: Plast Rconstr Surg 1972;50:497–506].Google Scholar

Marentette, LJ, Valentino, J. Traumatic anterior cranial fossa cerebrospinal fluid fistulae and craniofacial considerations. Otolaryn Clin North Am 1991;24:151–63.Google Scholar

Albert, JM, Smith, CE. Advanced anesthetic considerations for thoracic trauma. ASA Monitor 2015;79:24–8.Google Scholar

Allman, KG, Wilson, IH. Traumatic chest injuries. In: Allman, K, Wilson, I, O’Donnell, A (eds). Oxford Handbook of Anaesthesia, 4th edn. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 2016. pp. 856–8.Google Scholar

American College of Surgeons. ATLS® Advanced Trauma Life Support®. Student course manual, 9th edn. Chicago, IL: American College of Surgeons; 2012. pp. 94–111.Google Scholar

Parry, NG, Moffat, B, Vogt, K. Blunt thoracic trauma: recent advances and outstanding questions. Curr Opin Crit Care 2015;21:544–8.Google Scholar

Schellenberg, M, Inaba, K. Critical decisions in the management of thoracic trauma. Emerg Med Clin North Am 2018;36:135–47.Google Scholar

ATLS Subcommittee; American College of Surgeons’ Committee on Trauma; International ATLS working group. Advanced trauma life support (ATLS®): the ninth edition. J Trauma Acute Care Surg 2013;74:1363–6.Google Scholar

Bonner, S, Smith, C. Initial management of acute spinal cord injury. Contin Educ Anaesth Crit Care Pain 2013;13:224–31.Google Scholar

Denton, M, McKinlay, J. Cervical cord injury and critical care. Contin Educ Anaesth Crit Care Pain 2009;9:82–6.Google Scholar

World Health Organization. International perspectives on spinal cord injury. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2013.Google Scholar

American College of Surgeons. ATLS® Advanced Trauma Life Support®. Student course manual, 9th edn. Chicago, IL: American College of Surgeons; 2012.Google Scholar