Abd-Allah, Umar F. 1983. The Islamic Struggle in Syria. Berkeley, CA: Mizan Press.Google Scholar

Abd-Allah, Umar F. 2006. ‘Innovation and Creativity in Islam.’ Nawawi Foundation Paper [www.nawawi.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/01/Article4.pdf; Accessed 22 August 2015].Google Scholar

Abdel-Latif, Omayma. 2008. In the Shadow of the Brothers: The Women of the Egyptian Muslim Brotherhood. Carnegie Endowment: Carnegie Middle East Centre. [http://carnegieendowment.org/files/women_egypt_muslim_brotherhood.pdf; Accessed 20 August 2015].Google Scholar

Abdullah, Hussaina. 1993. ‘“Transition Politics” and the Challenge of Gender in Nigeria.’ Review of African Political Economy 56: 27–37.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Abou-Bakr, Omaima. 2013. ‘Rings of Memory: “Writing Muslim Women” and the Question of Authorial Voice.’ The Muslim World 103 (3): 320–33.Google Scholar

Abou El Fadl, Khaled. 2005. The Search for Beauty in Islam: A Conference of the Books. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers.Google Scholar

Abou El Fadl, Khaled. 2007. The Great Theft: Wrestling Islam from the Extremists. New York: HarperOne.Google Scholar

Abu-Absi, Samir. 2015. The Arab Language. History of Islam: An Encyclopedia of Islamic History. [http://historyofislam.com/contents/the-modern-age/the-arabic-language/; Accessed 15 August 2015].Google Scholar

Abu-Lughod, Lila. 2002. ‘Do Muslim Women Really Need Saving? Anthropological Reflections on Cultural Relativism and Its Others.’ American Anthropologist 104 (3): 783–90.Google Scholar

Abu-Lughod, Lila. 2013. Do Muslim Women Need Saving? Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar

Acemoglu, Daron, and Robinson, James A.. 2000. ‘Why Did the West Extend the Franchise? Democracy, Inequality, and Growth in Historical Perspective.’ The Quarterly Journal of Economics 115 (4): 1167–99.Google Scholar

Acemoglu, Daron, and Robinson, James A.. 2009. Economic Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy. Cambridge–New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Ackelsberg, Martha A. 1991. Free Women of Spain: Anarchism and the Struggle for the Emancipation of Women. Oakland, CA: AK Press.Google Scholar

Adamu, Abdalla Uba. 2003. ‘Sunset at Dawn: Colonial Policy and Muslim Hausa Education in Northern Nigeria, 1900–1910.’ In Hambolu, M. O., ed. Perspectives on Kano-British Relations. Kano: Gidan Makama Museum.Google Scholar

Adamu, Fatima L. 2008. ‘Gender, Hisba and the Enforcement of Morality in Northern Nigeria.’ Africa 78 (Special Issue 01 Perspectives on Vigilantism in Northern Nigeria): 136–52.Google Scholar

Adewunmi, Bim. 2011. ‘Do You Buy into Catherine Hakim’s “Erotic Capital”?’ The Guardian, 25 August [www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/the-womens-blog-with-jane-martinson/2011/aug/25/catherine-hakim-erotic-capital; Accessed 24 August 2015].Google Scholar

Adichie, Chimamanda Ngozi. 2007. Half of a Yellow Sun. New York: Anchor.Google Scholar

Ado-Kurawa, Ibrahim. 2007. ‘Ci Rani, Almajiranci and Security in Kano.’ In Adamu, A. U., ed. Chieftaincy and Security in Nigeria – Past, Present and Future. Kano: Research and Documentation Directorate, Government House, 347–77.Google Scholar

Agai, Bekim. 2007. ‘Islam and Education in Secular Turkey: State Policies and the Emergence of the Fethullah Güllen Group.’ In Hefner, Robert W. and Zaman, Muhammad Qasim, eds. Schooling Islam: The Culture and Politics of Modern Muslim Education. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 149–71.Google Scholar

Ahmad, Sadaf. 2009. Transforming Faith: The Story of Al-Huda and Islamic Revivalism among Urban Pakistani Women. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press.Google Scholar

Ahmad, Sadaf. 2013. ‘Al-Huda and Women’s Religious Authority in Urban Pakistan.’ The Muslim World 103 (3): 363–74.Google Scholar

Ahmed, Akbar S. 1997. Jinnah, Pakistan and Islamic Identity: The Search for Saladin. London–New York: Routledge.Google Scholar

Ahmed, Leila. 1992. Women and Gender in Islam: Historical Roots of a Modern Debate. New Haven, CT–London: Yale University Press.Google Scholar

Ajami, Fouad. 2012. The Syrian Rebellion. Stanford, CA: Hoover Institution Press.Google Scholar

Alam, Muzaffar, and Subrahmanyam, Sanjay, eds. 2000. The Mughal State, 1526–1750. Rev. Ed. New Delhi–Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar

Alam, Muzaffar, and Subrahmanyam, Sanjay. 2004. ‘The Making of a Munshi.’ Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East 24 (2): 61–72.Google Scholar

Ali, Tariq. 1970. Pakistan: Military Rule or People’s Power? London: Jonathan Cape Ltd.Google Scholar

Allen, Ann Taylor. 1991. Feminism and Motherhood in Germany, 1800–1914. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.Google Scholar

Anderson, Bonnie S., and Zinsser, Judith P.. 1988a. A History of Their Own, 1: Women in Europe from Prehistory to the Present. New York: Harper and Row Publishers.Google Scholar

Anderson, Bonnie S., and Zinsser, Judith P.. 1988b. A History of Their Own, 2: Women in Europe from Prehistory to the Present. New York: Harper and Row Publishers.Google Scholar

Antoninis, Manos. 2014. ‘Tackling the Largest Global Education Challenge? Secular and Religious Education in Northern Nigeria.’ World Development 59: 82–92.Google Scholar

Arthur, W. Brian. 1989. ‘Competing Technologies, Increasing Returns, and Lock-In by Historical Events.’ Economic Journal. 97: 642–65.Google Scholar

Auda, Jasser. Maqasid Al-Shariah as Philosophy of Islamic Law: A Systems Approach. London: International Institute of Islamic Thought.Google Scholar

Baba, Nasir Mohammed. 2011. ‘Islamic Schools, the Ulama, and the State in the Educational Development of Northern Nigeria.’ Bulletin de l’APAD 33 [http://apad.revues.org/4092; Accessed 19 August 2015].Google Scholar

Baden, Sally, and Goetz, Anne Marie. 1997. ‘Who Needs [Sex] When You Can Have [Gender]? Conflicting Discourses on Gender at Beijing.’ Feminist Review 56: 3–25.Google Scholar

Badran, Margot. 2009. Feminism in Islam: Secular and Religious Convergences. Oxford: Oneworld Publications.Google Scholar

Bano, Masooda. 2008. Islamiyya, Quranic, and Tsangaya Education in Kano. Kano: CUBE.Google Scholar

Bano, Masooda. 2009. ‘Engaged yet Disengaged: Islamic Schools and the State in Kano, Nigeria.’ RaD Working Paper 29, University of Birmingham [http://epapers.bham.ac.uk/1568/1/Bano_IslamicSchools.pdf; Accessed 19 August 2015].Google Scholar

Bano, Masooda. 2012a. The Rational Believer: Choices and Decisions in the Madrasas of Pakistan. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.Google Scholar

Bano, Masooda. 2012b. Breakdown in Pakistan: How Aid Is Eroding Institutions for Collective Action. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar

Bano, Masooda. 2012c. ‘Conclusion: Female Leadership in Mosques: An Evolving Narrative.’ In Bano, Masooda and Kalmbach, Hilary E., eds. Women, Leadership and Mosques: Changes in Contemporary Islamic Authority. Leiden–Boston: Brill, 507–34.Google Scholar

Bano, Masooda. 2012d. ‘Welfare Work and Politics of Jama’at-i-Islami in Pakistan and Bangladesh.’ Economic and Political Weekly XLVII (01).Google Scholar

Bano, Masooda. 2015. Education and Aspirations: Evidence from Islamic and State Schools in Pakistan and Nigeria. Paper presented at 2015 AALIMS Conference at Oxford, 15–16 May 2015.Google Scholar

Bano, Masooda, and Kalmbach, Hilary E., eds. 2012. Women, Leadership and Mosques: Changes in Contemporary Islamic Authority. Leiden–Boston: Brill.Google Scholar

Bano, Masooda, and Sakurai, Keiko. 2015. ‘Introduction.’ In Bano, Masooda and Sakurai, Keiko, eds. Shaping Global Islamic Discourses: The Role of Al-Azhar, Al-Medina and Al-Mustafa. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1–20.Google Scholar

Bano, Masooda, and Sakurai, Keiko, eds. 2015. Shaping Global Islamic Discourses: The Role of Al-Azhar, Al-Medina and Al-Mustafa. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.Google Scholar

Barkow, Jerome H. 1972. ‘Hausa Women and Islam.’ Canadian Journal of African Studies / Revue Canadienne des Études Africaines 6 (2): 317–28.Google Scholar

Barlas, Asma. 2002. ‘Believing Women’ in Islam: Unreading Patriarchal Interpretations of the Qur’an. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press.Google Scholar

Barlas, Asma. 2006. ‘Amina Wadud’s Hermeneutics of the Qur’an: Women Rereading Sacred Texts.’ In Taji-Farouki, Suha, ed. Modern Muslim Intellectuals and the Qur’an. Oxford: Oxford University Press–The Institute of Ismaili Studies, 97–124.Google Scholar

Bassnett, Susan. 1986. Feminist Experiences: The Women’s Movement in Four Cultures. Abingdon–New York: Routledge.Google Scholar

BBC. 2015. Are Pakistan’s Female Medical Students to be Doctors or Wives? [www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-34042751; Accessed 20 August 2015].Google Scholar

#BBCtrending. 2014. ‘Meet the Women Against Feminism.’ 24 July [www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-28446617; Accessed 25 August 2015].Google Scholar

Becker, Petra. 2013. ‘Syrian Muslim Brotherhood Still a Crucial Actor: Inclusivity the Order of the Day in Dealings with Syria’s Opposition.’ Stiftung Wissenschaft und Politik (SWP) Comments 34. [www.swp-berlin.org/fileadmin/contents/products/comments/2013C34_bkp.pdf; Accessed 18 August 2015].Google Scholar

Bennett, Judith M. 2006. History Matters: Patriarchy and the Challenge of Feminism. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press.Google Scholar

Berkey, Jonathan P. 2002. The Formation of Islam: Religion and Society in the Near East, 600–1800. Cambridge–New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Berkey, Jonathan P. 2007. ‘Madrasas Medieval and Modern: Politics, Education, and the Problem of Muslim Identity.’ In Hefner, Robert W. and Zaman, Muhammad Qasim, eds. Schooling Islam: The Culture and Politics of Modern Muslim Education. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 40–60.Google Scholar

Berkey, Jonathan P. 2014. The Transmission of Knowledge in Medieval Cairo: A Social History of Islamic Education. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar

Bienen, Henry. 1986. ‘Religion, Legitimacy, and Conflict in Nigeria.’ AAAPSS 483 (1): 50–60.Google Scholar

Blair, David, and Spencer, Richard. 2014. ‘How Qatar is Funding the Rise of Islamist Extremists.’ The Telegraph, 20 September. [www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/qatar/11110931/How-Qatar-is-funding-the-rise-of-Islamist-extremists.html; Accessed 7 August 2015].Google Scholar

Boittin, Jennifer Anne. 2010. Colonial Metropolis: The Urban Grounds of Anti-Imperialism and Feminism in Interwar Paris. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press.Google Scholar

Bolt, Christine. 1993. The Women’s Movements in the United States and Britain from the 1790s to the 1920s. Amherst, MA: University of Massachusetts Press.Google Scholar

Böttcher, Annabelle. 2002a. ‘Islamic Teaching Among Sunni Women in Syria.’ In Bowen, Donna Lee and Early, Evelyn A., eds. Everyday Life in the Muslim Middle East. 2nd Ed. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 290–99.Google Scholar

Böttcher, Annabelle. 2002b. ‘Official Sunni and Shi’i Islam in Syria.’ EUI Working Paper RSC No. 2002/3. [http://cadmus.eui.eu/bitstream/handle/1814/1761/2002_03.pdf?sequence=1; Accessed 22 August 2015].Google Scholar

Boyd, Jean. 1989. The Caliph’s Sister. London: Frank Cass.Google Scholar

Boyd, Jean, and Mack, Beverly B. 1997. The Collected Works of Nana Asma’u, Daughter of Usman ‘dan Fodiyo (1793–1864). East Lansing: Michigan University Press.Google Scholar

Boyle, Helen N. 2006. ‘Memorization and Learning in Islamic Schools’. Comparative Education Review 50 (3): 478–95.Google Scholar

Bray, Mark. 1981. Universal Primary Education in Nigeria: A Study of Kano State. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.Google Scholar

Breines, Winifred. 2006. The Trouble Between Us: An Uneasy History of White and Black Women in the Feminist Movement. Oxford–New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar

Buergener, Elisabeth. 2013. Becoming a True Muslim: Syrian Women’s Journey to Devoutness. PhD Thesis. Birmingham: University of Birmingham. [http://etheses.bham.ac.uk/4710/1/Buergener13PHD.pdf; Accessed 19 August 2015].Google Scholar

Bulliet, Richard W. 2004. The Case for Islamo-Christian Civilization. New York: Columbia University Press.Google Scholar

Caine, Barbara. 1997. English Feminism, 1780–1980. Oxford–New York: Oxford University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Calvert, John. 2010. Sayyid Qutb and the Origins of Radical Islamism. London: C Hurst & Co Publishers Ltd.Google Scholar

Chamberlain, Michael. 1994. Knowledge and Social Practice in Medieval Damascus, 1190–1350. Cambridge–New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Chong, A., Duryea, S., and La Ferrara, E.. 2012. ‘Soap Operas and Fertility: Evidence from Brazil.’ American Economic Journal: Applied Economics 4(4):1–31.Google Scholar

Chong, A., and La Ferrara, E.. 2009. ‘Television and Divorce: Evidence from Brazilian Novelas.’ Journal of the European Economic Association 7(2–3): 458–68.Google Scholar

Clarke, Peter B. 1978. ‘Islam, Education and the Developmental Process in Nigeria.’ Comparative Education 14 (2): 133–41.Google Scholar

Clarke, Peter B. 1982. West Africa and Islam: A Study of Religious Development from the 8th to the 20th Century. London: Edward Arnold.Google Scholar

Clough, Paul. 2009. ‘The Impact of Rural Political Economy on Gender Relations in Islamizing Hausaland, Nigeria.’ Africa 79 (4): 595–613.Google Scholar

Cohen, Stephen P. 2006. The Idea of Pakistan. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press.Google Scholar

Coleman, James S. 1994. Foundations of Social Theory. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar

Coles, Catherine M., and Mack, Beverly, eds. 1991. Hausa Women in the Twentieth Century. Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press.Google Scholar

Commins, David Dean. 1990. Islamic Reform: Politics and Social Change in Late Ottoman Syria. Oxford–New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar

Csapo, Marg. 1981. ‘Religious, Social and Economic Factors Hindering the Education of Girls in Northern Nigeria.’ Comparative Education 17 (3): 311–19.Google Scholar

Day, Elizabeth. 2011. ‘Honey Money: The Power of Erotic Capital by Catherine Hakim – Review.’ The Guardian, August 28, sec. Books. [www.theguardian.com/books/2011/aug/28/honey-money-catherine-hakim-review; Accessed 19 August 2015].Google Scholar

Delap, Lucy. 2007. The Feminist Avant-Garde: Transatlantic Encounters of the Early Twentieth Century. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Devji, Faisal. 2013. Muslim Zion: Pakistan as a Political Idea. London: C Hurst & Co Publishers Ltd.Google Scholar

Diamond, Jared M. 1998. Guns, Germs and Steel: A Short History of Everybody for the Last 13,000 Years. London: Vintage.Google Scholar

Dickinson, Elizabeth. 2014. ‘The Case Against Qatar.’ Foreign Policy, 30 September [https://foreignpolicy.com/2014/09/30/the-case-against-qatar/; Accessed 7 August 2015].Google Scholar

Diplomatie, France. 2013. Syria – Destruction of the Minaret of the Umayyad Mosque in Aleppo April 24 [www.diplomatie.gouv.fr/en/country-files/syria/events/article/syria-destruction-of-the-minaret; Accessed 15 March 2016].Google Scholar

Dossett, Kate. 2007. Bridging Race Divides: Black Nationalism, Feminism, and Integration in the United States, 1896–1935. Gainesville, FL: University Press of Florida.Google Scholar

Duflo, Esther. 2012. ‘Women Empowerment and Economic Development.’ Journal of Economic Literature 50 (4): 1051–79.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Eickelman, Dale F. 1978. ‘The Art of Memory: Islamic Education and Its Social Reproduction.’ Comparative Studies in Society and History 20 (4): 485–516.Google Scholar

Eickelman, Dale F. 1992. ‘Mass Higher Education and the Religious Imagination in Contemporary Arab Societies.’ American Ethnologist 19 (4): 643–55.Google Scholar

Eickelman, Dale F. 2000. ‘Islam and the Languages of Modernity.’ Daedalus 129 (1): 119–35.Google Scholar

Eickelman, Dale F., and Piscatori, James. 2004. Muslim Politics. 2nd Ed. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar

Eickelman, Dale F., Anderson, Jon W., and Tessler, Mark, eds. 2003. New Media in the Muslim World: The Emerging Public Sphere. 2nd Ed. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press.Google Scholar

Eisenstadt, Shmuel N., Abitbol, Michel, and Chazan, Naomi, eds. 1997. The Early State in African Perspective: Culture, Power and Division of Labor. Leiden–New York: Brill.Google Scholar

Engineer, Asghar Ali. 1998. ‘Indian Islam and Reform Movements in Post-Independence India.’ WLUML Dossier 20 [www.wluml.org/node/311; Accessed 22 August 2015].Google Scholar

Ensminger, Jean. 1997. Making a Market: The Institutional Transformation of an African Society. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Ephrat, Daphna. 2000. A Learned Society in a Period of Transition: The Sunni ʿUlamaʼ of Eleventh Century Baghdad. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.Google Scholar

Esposito, John L. 1999. The Islamic Threat: Myth or Reality? 3rd Ed. Oxford–New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar

ESSPIN. 2011. Islamiyya, Quranic and Tsangaya Education Institutions Census in Kano State. Abuja: Education Sector Support Programme in Nigeria.Google Scholar

Estes, Yusuf, and Gary, Miller. 2015. ‘Bible Islam – Bible Compared to Quran.’ [www.bibleislam.com/bible_vs_quran.php; Accessed 20 August 2015].Google Scholar

Estlund, David M. 2009. Democratic Authority: A Philosophical Framework. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar

Euben, Roxanne L. 1997. ‘Comparative Political Theory: An Islamic Fundamentalist Critique of Rationalism.’ The Journal of Politics 59 (1): 28–55.Google Scholar

Euben, Roxanne L. 1999. Enemy in the Mirror: Islamic Fundamentalism and the Limits of Modern Rationalism. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar

Euben, Roxanne L. 2003. ‘A Counternarrative of Shared Ambivalence: Some Muslim and Western Perspectives on Science and Reason.’ Common Knowledge 9 (1): 50–77.Google Scholar

Fair, C. Christine. 2008. Madrassah Challenge: Militancy and Religious Education in Pakistan. Washington, DC: United States Institute of Peace.Google Scholar

Falola, Toyin. 1995. Development Planning and Decolonization in Nigeria. Gainesville, FL: University Press of Florida.Google Scholar

Falola, Toyin. 2001. ‘Review: Schooling the Northern Nigerian Elite.’ The Journal of African History 42 (2): 333–35.Google Scholar

Falola, Toyin, and Heaton, Matthew M.. 2008. A History of Nigeria. Cambridge–New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Feldman, Noah. 2008. The Fall and Rise of the Islamic State. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar

Fell, Alison S., and Sharp, Ingrid. eds. 2007. The Women’s Movement in Wartime: International Perspectives, 1914–19. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.Google Scholar

Ferguson, Niall. 2004. Empire: How Britain Made the Modern World. London: Penguin.Google Scholar

Fischer, Michael M. J. 1982. ‘Islam and the Revolt of the Petit Bourgeoisie.’ Daedalus 111 (1): 101–25.Google Scholar

FOMWAN. 2015a. Mission Statement. [www.fomwan.org/publication/FOMWAN%20at%20a%20glance%201985–2010.pdf; Accessed 29 July 2015].Google Scholar

FOMWAN. 2015b. Islam and Girl Child Education. Kano: FOMWAN Publications.Google Scholar

Fotini, Christia. 2013. ‘How Syrian Women Are Fueling the Resistance. And Why Washington Should Support Them.’ Foreign Affairs, 6 March [www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/syria/2013–03-06/how-syrian-women-are-fueling-resistance; Accessed 25 August 2015].Google Scholar

Galadanci, S. A. S. 1971. ‘Education of Women in Islam with Reference to Nigeria.’Nigerian Journal of Islam 1 (2): 5–10.Google Scholar

Gambetta, Diego. 1987. Were They Pushed or Did They Jump? Individual Decision Mechanisms in Education. Cambridge–New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Gambetta, Diego, and Hertog, Steffen. 2009. ‘Why Are There so Many Engineers among Islamic Radicals?’ European Journal of Sociology 50 (2): 201–30.Google Scholar

Geertz, Clifford. 1971. Islam Observed: Religious Development in Morocco and Indonesia. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar

Gelvin, James L. 1999. Divided Loyalties: Nationalism and Mass Politics in Syria at the Close of Empire. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.Google Scholar

Al-Ghazali, Abu Ḥamid Muḥammad ibn Muḥammad. 1995. On Disciplining the Soul [Kitab riyadat al-nafs] and On Breaking the Two Desires [Kitab kasr al-shahwatayn]: Books XXII and XXIII of The Revival of the Religious Sciences [Ihyaʼ ulum al-din] [of Abu Hamid Muhammad ibn Muhammad ibn Ahmad al-Gazzali (1058–1111)]. Trans. Winter, Timothy J.. Cambridge: The Islamic Texts Society.Google Scholar

Al-Ghazali, Abu Ḥamid Muḥammad ibn Muḥammad. 2001. Al-Ghazali’s Path to Sufism and his Deliverance from Error [al-Munqidh min al-Dalal]. Trans. McCarthy, Richard J.. 2nd Ed. Louisville, KY: Fons Vitae.Google Scholar

Al-Ghazali, Abu Ḥamid Muḥammad ibn Muḥammad. 2005. On the Elucidation of The Marvels of the Heart [Kitab Sharh ‘Aja’ib al-Qalb]: Book XXI of The Revival of the Religious Sciences [Ihyaʼ ulum al-din]. Leicester: Dar ul Fiqh.Google Scholar

Al-Ghazali, Abu Ḥamid Muḥammad ibn Muḥammad. 2014. On Intention, Sincerity and Truthfulness [Kitab al-niyya wa’l-ikhlas wa’l sidq]: Book XXXVII of The Revival of the Religious Sciences [Ihyaʼ ulum al-din]. Trans. Shaker, Anthony F.. Cambridge: The Islamic Texts Society.Google Scholar

Giardina, Carol. 2010. Freedom for Women: Forging the Women’s Liberation Movement, 1953–1970. Gainesville, FL: University Press of Florida.Google Scholar

Gleadle, Kathryn. 1998. The Early Feminists: Radical Unitarians and the Emergence of the Women’s Rights Movement, 1831–51. Basingstoke–New York: Palgrave Macmillan.Google Scholar

GMR and USI. 2014. Progress in getting all children to school stalls but some countries show the way forward. Policy Paper 14. [Available Online: www.uis.unesco.org/Education/Documents/fs-28-out-of-school-children-en.pdf; Accessed 1 August 2015].Google Scholar

Goldthorpe, John H. 1998. ‘Rational Action Theory for Sociology.’ The British Journal of Sociology 49 (2): 167–92.Google Scholar

Gourgouris, Stathis. 2008. ‘Antisecularist Failures: A Counterresponse to Saba Mahmood.’ Public Culture 20 (3): 453–59.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Government of Kano (GoK). 2003. Islamiyya, Tsangaya and Ilmi School Census. Kano: Office of the Special Advisor to the Governor on Islamic and Quranic Schools.Google Scholar

Government of Pakistan (GoP). 2012. Pakistan Employment Trends 2011. Islamabad: Pakistan Bureau of Statistics.Google Scholar

Granovetter, Mark S. 1973. ‘The Strength of Weak Ties.’ American Journal of Sociology 78 (6): 1360–80.Google Scholar

Greif, Avner. 2006. Institutions and the Path to the Modern Economy: Lessons from Medieval Trade. Cambridge–New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

El, Guindi, Fadwa. 1999. Veil: Modesty, Privacy and Resistance. Oxford–New York: Berg.Google Scholar

Haddad, Yhgvonne Yazbeck, Voll, John Obert, and Esposito, John L.. 1991. The Contemporary Islamic Revival: A Critical Survey and Bibliography. New York–London: Greenwood Publishing Group.Google Scholar

Hakim, Catherine. 2011. Honey Money: The Power of Erotic Capital. London: Allen Lane.Google Scholar

Hakim, Catherine. 2015a. ‘Supply and Desire: Sexuality and the Sex Industry in the 21st Century.’ IEA Discussion Paper 62 [www.iea.org.uk/publications/research/supply-and-desire-sexuality-and-the-sex-industry-in-the-21st-century; Accessed 22 August 2015].Google Scholar

Hakim, Catherine. 2015b. ‘The Male Sexual Deficit: A Social Fact of the 21st Century.’International Sociology 30 (3): 314–35.Google Scholar

Hall, M. Clement. 2013. The History of Syria: 1900–2012. Charles River Editors–Create Space Independent Publishing Platform.Google Scholar

Hallaq, Wael B. 2009. Shari’a: Theory, Practice, Transformations. Cambridge–New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Hammer, Juliane. 2012. ‘Activism as Embodied Tafsir: Negotiating Women’s Authority, Leadership, and Space in North America.’ In Bano, Masooda and Kalmbach, Hilary E., eds. Women, Leadership and Mosques: Changes in Contemporary Islamic Authority. Leiden–Boston: Brill, 457–80.Google Scholar

Hammer, Juliane, and Spielhaus, Riem. 2013. ‘Muslim Women and the Challenge of Authority: An Introduction.’ The Muslim World 103 (3): 287–94.Google Scholar

Haq, Mahbub ul. 1995. Reflections on Human Development. Oxford–New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar

Haq, Mahbub ul. 1997. Human Development Report in South Asia 1997. Islamabad: Mahbub ul Haq Human Development Centre.Google Scholar

Haqqani, Husain. 2005. Pakistan: Between Mosque and Military. Lahore: Vanguard.Google Scholar

Hatina, Meir, ed. 2008. Guardians of Faith in Modern Times: ‘Ulama’ in the Middle East. Leiden–Boston: Brill.Google Scholar

Hayek, Friedrich A. 1945. ‘The Use of Knowledge in Society.’ American Economic Review. 35 (4): 519–30.Google Scholar

Heck, Paul L. 2004. ‘Religious Renewal in Syria: The Case of Muhammad al-Habash.’Islam and Christian-Muslim Relations. 15 (2): 185–207.Google Scholar

Hefner, Robert W. 2007. ‘Introduction: The Culture, Politics, and Future of Muslim Education.’ In Hefner, Robert W. and Zaman, Muhammad Qasim, eds. Schooling Islam: The Culture and Politics of Modern Muslim Education. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1–39.Google Scholar

Hefner, Robert W., ed. 2011. Shari’a Politics: Islamic Law and Society in the Modern World. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press.Google Scholar

Hefner, Robert W., and Zaman, Muhammad Qasim, eds. 2007. Schooling Islam: The Culture and Politics of Modern Muslim Education. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar

Helmke, Gretchen, and Levitsky, Steven. 2004. ‘Informal Institutions and Comparative Politics: A Research Agenda.’ Perspectives on Politics 2 (4): 725–40.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Heydemann, Steven. 1999. Authoritarianism in Syria: Institutions and Social Conflict, 1946–1970. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.Google Scholar

Higazi, Adam. 2008. ‘Social Mobilization and Collective Violence: Vigilantes and Militias in the Lowlands of Plateau State, Central Nigeria.’ Africa 78 (Special Issue 01 Perspectives on Vigilantism in Northern Nigeria): 107–35.Google Scholar

Hill, Jonathan. 2012. Nigeria Since Independence: Forever Fragile? Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.Google Scholar

Hill, Magari. 2009. ‘The Spread of Islam in West Africa: Containment, Mixing, and Reform from the Eighth to the Twentieth Century.’ SPICE Digest (Spring) [http://spice.fsi.stanford.edu/sites/default/files/Islam.pdf; Accessed 20 August 205].Google Scholar

Hiskett, Mervyn. 1994. The Sword of Truth: The Life and Times of Shehu Usuman Dan Fodio. 2nd Ed. Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press.Google Scholar

Hitchcock, Tim. 2012. ‘The Reformulation of Sexual Knowledge in Eighteenth-Century England.’ Signs 37 (4): 823–31.Google Scholar

Hodgson, Marshall G. S. 1977a. The Venture of Islam, 1: The Classical Age of Islam. Chicago: University Of Chicago Press.Google Scholar

Hodgson, Marshall G. S. 1977b. The Venture of Islam, 2: The Expansion of Islam in the Middle Periods. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar

Hodgson, Marshall G. S. 1977c. The Venture of Islam, 3: The Gunpowder Empires and Modern Times. Chicago: University Of Chicago Press.Google Scholar

Hodgson, Marshall G. S. 1993. Rethinking World History: Essays on Europe, Islam, and World History. Burke, Edmund III, ed. Cambridge–New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Holton, Sandra Stanley. 1994. ‘Free Love and Victorian Feminism: The Divers Matrimonials of Elizabeth Wolstenholme and Ben Elmy.’ Victorian Studies 37 (2): 199–222.Google Scholar

Holton, Sandra Stanley. 1996. Suffrage Days: Stories from the Women’s Suffrage Movement. London–New York: Routledge.Google Scholar

Hourani, Albert. 2005. A History of the Arab Peoples. Rev Ed. London: Faber and Faber.Google Scholar

Al-Huda. 2016. About Al-Huda International. [www.alhudapk.com/component/content/article/2-uncategorised/174-about-al-huda-international.html; Accessed 12 March 2016].Google Scholar

Hunwick, John. 1992. ‘An African Case Study of Political Islam: Nigeria.’ AAAPSS 524: 143–55.Google Scholar

Hussain, Zahid. 2007. Frontline Pakistan: The Struggle with Militant Islam. New York: Columbia University Press.Google Scholar

Hutson, Alaine S. 1999. ‘The Development of Women’s Authority in the Kano Tijaniyya, 1894–1963.’ Africa Today 46 (3–4): 43–64.Google Scholar

Battutah, Ibn. 2003. The Travels of Ibn Battutah. Ed. Mackintosh-Smith, Tim. London: Picador.Google Scholar

Khaldun, Ibn. 2004. The Muqaddimah: An Introduction to History. Ed. Dawood, N. J.. Trans. Rosenthal, Franz. Abridged Ed. and Intro. Lawrence, Bruce B.. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar

Ikkaracan, Pinar, and Jolly, Susie. 2007, ‘Gender and Sexuality: Overview Report.’ BRIDGE Cutting Edge Pack (Institute of Development Studies, Sussex) [www.bridge.ids.ac.uk/sites/bridge.ids.ac.uk/files/reports/CEP-Sexuality-OR.pdf; Accessed 19 August 2015].Google Scholar

Iqtidar, Humeira. 2011. Secularizing Islamists? Jama‘at-e-Islami and Jama‘at-ud-Da‘wa in Urban Pakistan. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar

Islam, Sarah. 2010. ‘The Qubaysiyyāt: The Growth of an International Muslim Women’s Revivalists Movement from Syria (1960–2008).’ In Bano, Masooda and Kalmbach, Hilary E., eds. Women, Leadership and Mosques: Changes in Contemporary Islamic Authority. Leiden–Boston: Brill, 161–86.Google Scholar

Jaffrelot, Christophe. 2002. Pakistan: Nationalism without a Nation. New Delhi–London: Zed Books.Google Scholar

Jalal, Ayesha. 1990. The State of Martial Rule: The Origins of Pakistan’s Political Economy of Defence. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Jalal, Ayesha. 1994. The Sole Spokesman: Jinnah, the Muslim League, and the Demand for Pakistan. Cambridge–New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Jalal, Ayesha. 2014. The Struggle for Pakistan: A Muslim Homeland and Global Politics. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar

Jaschok, Maria. 2012. ‘Sources of Authority: Female Ahong and Qingzhen Nusi (Women’s Mosques) in China.’ In Bano, Masooda and Kalmbach, Hilary E., eds. Women, Leadership and Mosques: Changes in Contemporary Islamic Authority. Leiden–Boston: Brill, 37–58.Google Scholar

Jeffrey, Craig. 2010. Timepass: Youth, Class, and the Politics of Waiting in India. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.Google Scholar

Jeffery, Patricia, Jeffery, Roger, and Jeffrey, Craig. 2012. ‘Leading by Example? Women Madrasah Teachers in Rural North India.’ In Bano, Masooda and Kalmbach, Hilary E., eds. Women, Leadership and Mosques: Changes in Contemporary Islamic Authority. Leiden–Boston: Brill, 195–216.Google Scholar

Jensen, R., and Oster, E.. 2009. ‘The Power of TV: Cable Television and Women’s Status in India.’ Quarterly Journal of Economics 124 (3), 1057–94.Google Scholar

Jones-Pauly, Chris, and Tuqan, Abir Dajani. 2011. Women Under Islam: Gender, Justice and the Politics of Islamic Law. London–New York: IB Tauris.Google Scholar

Kabeer, Naila. 1999. ‘Resources, Agency, Achievements: Reflections on the Measurement of Women’s Empowerment.’ Development and Change 30 (3): 435–64.Google Scholar

Kalmbach, Hilary E. 2008. ‘Social and Religious Change in Damascus: One Case of Female Islamic Religious Authority.’ British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies 35 (1): 37–57.Google Scholar

Kalmbach, Hilary E. 2012. ‘Introduction: Islamic Authority and the Study of Female Religious Leaders.’ In Bano, Masooda and Kalmbach, Hilary E., eds. Women, Leadership and Mosques: Changes in Contemporary Islamic Authority. Leiden–Boston: Brill, 1–30.Google Scholar

Kamali, Mohammad Hashim. 2008. Civilisational Renewal: Revisiting the Islam Hadhari Approach. Kuala Lumpur: Arah Publications.Google Scholar

Kane, Ousmane. 2003. Muslim Modernity in Postcolonial Nigeria: A Study of the Society for the Removal and Reinstatement of Tradition. Leiden–Boston: Brill.Google Scholar

Katsoulis, Melissa. 2011. ‘Honey Money: The Power of Erotic Capital by Catherine Hakim: Review.’ September 6 [www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/8734868/Honey-Money-The-Power-of-Erotic-Capital-by-Catherine-Hakim-review.html.; Access 10 March 2016].Google Scholar

Kedar, Mordechai. 2005. Asad in Search of Legitimacy: Message and Rhetoric in the Syrian Press Under Hafiz and Bashar. Brighton–Portland: Sussex Academic Press.Google Scholar

Kelly, Sanja, and Breslin, Julia. 2010. Women’s Rights in the Middle East and North Africa: Progress amid Resistance. London: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers.Google Scholar

Kepel, Gilles. 2009. Jihad: The Trail of Political Islam. Rev. Ed. IB Tauris.Google Scholar

Khalaf, Roula, and Fielding-Smith, Abigail. 2013. ‘How Qatar Seized Control of the Syrian Revolution.’ Financial Times, 17 May. [www.ft.com/cms/s/2/f2d9bbc8-bdbc-11e2-890a-00144feab7de.html; Accessed 19 August 2015].Google Scholar

Al-Khalili, Jim. 2012. Pathfinders: The Golden Age of Arabic Science. London: Penguin.Google Scholar

Khan, Sarah Ahmad. 1994. Nigeria: The Political Economy of Oil. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar

Klugman, Jeni, Hanmer, Lucia, Twigg, Sarah, Hasan, Tazeen, McCleary-Sills, Jennifer, and Santamaria, Julieth. 2014. Voice and Agency: Empowering Women and Girls for Shared Prosperity. Washington, DC: World Bank Group. World Bank. [https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/19036; Accessed 20 August 2015].Google Scholar

Kuran, Timur. 2012. The Long Divergence: How Islamic Law Held Back the Middle East. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar

Kushimoto, Hiroko. 2015. ‘“Azharisation” of ‘Ulama Training in Malaysia.’ In Bano, Masooda and Sakurai, Keiko, eds. Shaping Global Islamic Discourses: The Role of Al-Azhar, Al-Medina and Al-Mustafa. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 190–218.Google Scholar

Lacroix, Stéphane. 2012. ‘Sheiks and Politicians: Inside the New Egyptian Salafism.’ Brookings Doha Center Policy Briefing [www.brookings.edu/~/media/research/files/papers/2012/6/07-egyptian-salafism-lacroix/stephane-lacroix-policy-briefing-english.pdf; Accessed 7 August 2015].Google Scholar

Landes, David S. 1999. Wealth and Poverty of Nations. London: Abacus.Google Scholar

Lapidus, Ira M. 1997. ‘Islamic Revival and Modernity: The Contemporary Movements and the Historical Paradigms.’ Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 40 (4): 444–60.Google Scholar

Laqueur, Thomas W. 2012. ‘The Rise of Sex in the Eighteenth Century: Historical Context and Historiographical Implications.’ Signs 37 (4): 802–13.Google Scholar

Larkin, Brian. 2008. Signal and Noise: Media, Infrastructure, and Urban Culture in Nigeria. Durham, NC: Duke University Press Books.Google Scholar

Last, Murray. 1967. The Sokoto Caliphate. London: Longmans.Google Scholar

Last, Murray. 2008. ‘The Search for Security in Muslim Northern Nigeria.’ Africa 78 (1): 41–63.Google Scholar

Lawson, Fred H., ed. 2010. Demystifying Syria. London: Saqi–The London Middle East Institute.Google Scholar

Lefevre, Raphael. 2013. Ashes of Hama: The Muslim Brotherhood in Syria. Oxford–New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar

Lerner, Daniel. 1958. The Passing of Traditional Society: Modernizing the Middle East. London: Macmillan.Google Scholar

Lerner, Gerda. 2005. The Majority Finds Its Past: Placing Women in History. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press.Google Scholar

Lesch, David W. 2013. Syria: The Fall of the House of Assad. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.Google Scholar

LeVan, A. Carl. 2014. Dictators and Democracy in African Development: The Political Economy of Good Governance in Nigeria. Cambridge–New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Libecap, Gary D. 1989. Contracting for Property Rights. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Liebowitz, Stan J., and Margolis, Stephen E.. 1995. ‘Path Dependence, Lock-In, and History.’ Journal of Law, Economics, and Organization 11 (1): 205–26.Google Scholar

Lieven, Anatol. 2011. Pakistan: A Hard Country. London: Allen Lane.Google Scholar

Lings, Martin. 1983. Muhammad: His Life Based on the Earliest Sources. London: The Islamic Texts Society.Google Scholar

Loimeier, Roman. 1997. Islamic Reform and Political Change in Northern Nigeria. Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press.Google Scholar

Loimeier, Roman. 2003. ‘Patterns and Peculiarities of Islamic Reform in Africa.’ Journal of Religion in Africa 33 (3): 237–62.Google Scholar

Loimeier, Roman. 2012. ‘Boko Haram: The Development of a Militant Religious Movement in Nigeria.’ Africa Spectrum 47 (2–3): 137–55.Google Scholar

Lubeck, Paul M. 1985. ‘Islamic Protest Under Semi-Industrial Capitalism: ’Yan Tatsine Explained.’ Africa 55 (4): 369–89.Google Scholar

Lubeck, Paul M. 2011. ‘Nigeria: Mapping a Shari’a Restorationist Movement.’ In Hefner, Robert W., ed. Shari’a Politics: Islamic Law and Society in the Modern World. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 244–79.Google Scholar

Mack, Beverly B. 2008. ‘Muslim Women Scholars in the Nineteenth and Twentieth centuries: Morocco to Nigeria.’ In Jeppie, Shamil and Bachir Diagne, Souleymane, eds. The Meanings of Timbuktu. [COESRIA www.codesria.org/spip.php?article64; Accessed 19 August 2015].Google Scholar

Mack, Beverly B., and Boyd, Jean. 2000. One Woman’s Jihad: Nana Asma’u, Scholar and Scribe. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press.Google Scholar

Madunagu, Edwin. 1984. Nigeria: The Economy and the People – The Political Economy of State Robbery and Its Popular Democratic Negation. London: New Beacon Books Ltd.Google Scholar

Mahmood, Saba. 2008. ‘Is Critique Secular? A Symposium at UC Berkeley.’ Public Culture 20 (3): 447–52.Google Scholar

Mahmood, Saba. 2012. Politics of Piety: The Islamic Revival and the Feminist Subject. Rev. Ed. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar

Maier, Charles S. 1975. Recasting Bourgeois Europe: Stabilization in France, Germany, and Italy in the Decade after World War I. Princeton: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar

Maier, Karl. 2002. This House Has Fallen: Nigeria In Crisis. London: Penguin.Google Scholar

Makdisi, George. 1981. The Rise of Colleges: Institutions of Learning in Islam and the West. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.Google Scholar

Malik, Jamal. 1997. ‘Dynamics Among Traditional Religious Scholars and Their Institutions in Contemporary South Asia.’ The Muslim World 87 (3–4): 199–220.Google Scholar

Malik, Jamal. 1998. Colonization of Islam: Dissolution of Traditional Institutions in Pakistan. New Delhi: Manohar.Google Scholar

Malik, Jamal. 2008. Islam in South Asia: A Short History. Leiden-Boston: Brill.Google Scholar

Manville, Brook, and Ober, Josiah. 2003. A Company of Citizens: What the World’s First Democracy Teaches Leaders About Creating Great Organizations. Boston, Mass: Harvard Business School Press.Google Scholar

Maqsood, Ammara. 2012. ‘Buying Modern: Muslim Subjectivity, the West and Patterns of Religious Consumption in Lahore, Pakistan.’ The South Asianist 1 (2).Google Scholar

Martinez, Michael, and Alkhshali, Hamdi. 2013. Minaret Destroyed at 12th-century Syrian Mosque on World Heritage list.[http://edition.cnn.com/2013/04/24/world/asia/syria-minaret/; Accessed 10 March 2016].Google Scholar

Masud, Muhammad Khalid, Salvatore, Armando, and van Bruinessen, Martin, eds. 2009. Islam and Modernity. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.Google Scholar

McCall, Daniel F., and Bennett, Norman R., eds. 1971. Aspects of West African Islam. Boston: Boston University.Google Scholar

McCartney, Matthew. 2011. Pakistan – The Political Economy of Growth, Stagnation and the State, 1951–2009. Abingdon–New York: Routledge.Google Scholar

McHugo, John. 2015. Syria: A History of the Last Hundred Years. New York: The New Press.Google Scholar

McKeon, Michael. 2012. ‘The Seventeenth- and Eighteenth-Century Sexuality Hypothesis.’ Signs 37 (4): 791–801.Google Scholar

Mernissi, Fatima. 1987. Beyond the Veil: Male-Female Dynamics in Modern Muslim Society. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press.Google Scholar

Mernissi, Fatima. 1991. Women and Islam: An Historical and Theological Enquiry. Oxford: Blackwell.Google Scholar

Mernissi, Fatima. 1992. The Veil and the Male Elite: A Feminist Interpretation of Women’s Rights in Islam. Repr. Ed. Cambridge, MA: Perseus Books.Google Scholar

Mernissi, Fatima. 1997. The Forgotten Queens of Islam. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press.Google Scholar

Metcalf, Barbara D. 1982. Islamic Revival in British India: Deoband, 1860–1900. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar

Metcalf, Barbara D. 2002. ‘Traditionalist’ Islamic Activism: Deoband, Tablighis, and Talibs. Leiden: ISIM.Google Scholar

Metcalf, Barbara D. 2009 ‘Introduction: A Historical Overview of Islam in South Asia.’ In Metcalf, Barbara D., ed. Islam in South Asia in Practice. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1–42.Google Scholar

Midgley, Clare. 2007. Feminism and Empire: Women Activists in Imperial Britain, 1790–1865. London–New York: Routledge.Google Scholar

Miles, William F. S. 2015. Hausaland Divided: Colonialism and Independence in Nigeria and Niger. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.Google Scholar

Miller, Carol, and Razavi, Shahrashoub. 1995. ‘From WID to GAD: Conceptual Shifts in the Women and Development Discourse.’ UNRISD Occasional Paper 1 [www.unrisd.org/80256B3C005BCCF9/(httpPublications)/D9C3FCA78D3DB32E80256B67005B6AB5?OpenDocument; Accessed 18 August 2015].Google Scholar

Minault, Gail. 1982. The Khilafat Movement: Religious Symbolism and Political Mobilization in India. New York: Columbia University Press.Google Scholar

Minault, Gail. 1998. Secluded Scholars: Women’s Education and Muslim Social Reform in Colonial India. Oxford–Delhi: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar

Mitchell, Richard P. 1993. The Society of the Muslim Brothers. Oxford–New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar

Morgan, William R., and Armer, J. Michael. 1988. ‘Islamic and Western Educational Accommodation in a West African Society: A Cohort-Comparison Analysis.’ American Sociological Review 53 (4): 634–39.Google Scholar

Moses, Claire G. 1984. French Feminism in the Nineteenth Century. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.Google Scholar

Mumtaz, Khawar, and Shaheed, Farida, eds. 1988. Women of Pakistan: Two Steps Forward, One Step Back. London–Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Zed Books.Google Scholar

Mustapha, Abdul Raufu, ed. 2014. Sects and Social Disorder: Muslim Identities and Conflict in Northern Nigeria. Woodbridge: James Currey.Google Scholar

Nadwi, Mohammad Akram. 2007. Al-Muhaddithat: The Women Scholars in Islam. Oxford: Interface Publications.Google Scholar

Naniya, Tijjani Muhammad. 1993. ‘The Dilemma of the ‘Ulama’ in a Colonial Society: The Case Study of Kano Emirate.’ Journal of Islamic Studies. 4(2): 151–160.Google Scholar

Nasr, Seyyed Vali Reza. 1994. The Vanguard of the Islamic Revolution: Jama’at-i-Islami of Pakistan. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar

Nelson, Matthew J. 2006. ‘Muslims, Markets, and the Meaning of a “Good” Education in Pakistan’. Asian Survey 46 (5): 699–720.Google Scholar

Nizami, Farhan Ahmad. 1983. Madrasahs, Scholars and Saints: Muslim Response to the British Presence in Delhi and the Upper Doab, 1803–1857. D. Phil. Thesis. Oxford: University of Oxford.Google Scholar

Noman, Omar. 1990. Pakistan: A Political and Economic History Since 1947. Rev. Ed. London: Kegan Paul International.Google Scholar

North, Douglass C. 1982. Structure and Change in Economic History. New York: W. W. Norton and Company.Google Scholar

North, Douglass C. 1990. Institutions, Institutional Change and Economic Performance. Cambridge–New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

North, Douglass C., Wallis, John Joseph, and Weingast, Barry R.. 2009. Violence and Social Orders: A Conceptual Framework for Interpreting Recorded Human History. Cambridge–New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Nussbaum, Martha C. 2001. ‘Symposium on Amartya Sen’s Philosophy: 5 Adaptive Preferences and Women’s Options.’ Economics and Philosophy 17 (01): 67–88.Google Scholar

Nussbaum, Martha C. 2006. ‘Reply: In Defence of Global Political Liberalism.’ Development and Change 37 (6): 1313–38.Google Scholar

Obadare, Ebenezer. 2007. ‘Religious NGOs, Civil Society and the Quest for a Public Sphere in Nigeria.’ African Identities 5 (1): 135–53.Google Scholar

Ober, Josiah. 2008. Democracy and Knowledge: Innovation and Learning in Classical Athens. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar

Ogunbiyi, I. A. 1969. ‘The Position of Muslim Women as Stated by ’Uthman B Fudi.’Odù: Journal of Yoruba and Related Studies 2: 43–60.Google Scholar

Olaniyi, Rasheed Oyewole. 2011. ‘Hisbah and Sharia Law Enforcement in Metropolitan Kano.’ Africa Today 57 (4): 70–96.Google Scholar

Omar, Sara. 2013. ‘Al-Qubaysiyyāt: Negotiating Female Religious Authority in Damascus.’ The Muslim World 103 (3): 347–62.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Paden, John. 1973. Religion and Political Culture in Kano. Berkeley: University of California Press.Google Scholar

Paul, T. V. 2014. The Warrior State: Pakistan in the Contemporary World. Oxford–New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar

PBS. 2015. “The Light in Her Eyes” in Context: Syria: A Modern History. [www.pbs.org/pov/thelightinhereyes/photo-gallery-in-context/; Accessed 1 September 2015].Google Scholar

Perthes, Volker. 1995. The Political Economy of Syria Under Asad. London–New York: IB Tauris.Google Scholar

Pew-Templeton. 2011. The Future of the Global Muslim Population. Projections for 2010–2030. [www.pewforum.org/files/2011/01/FutureGlobalMuslimPopulation-WebPDF-Feb10.pdf; Accessed 1 September 2015]Google Scholar

Pierret, Thomas. 2012. ‘The Role of the Mosque in the Syrian Revolution.’ Near East Quarterly 7 [www.research.ed.ac.uk/portal/files/13122327/The_Role_of_the_Mosque_in_the_Syrian_Revolution.pdf; Accessed 20 August 2015].Google Scholar

Pierret, Thomas. 2013. Religion and State in Syria: The Sunni Ulama from Coup to Revolution. Cambridge–New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Pierret, Thomas. 2014a. ‘The Syrian Baath Party and Sunni Islam: Conflicts and Connivance.’ Middle East Brief 77 (Brandeis University Crown Center for Middle East Studies) [Available Online: www.research.ed.ac.uk/portal/files/14596067/The_Syrian_Baath_Party_and_Sunni_Islam.pdf; Accessed: 25 August 2015].Google Scholar

Pierret, Thomas. 2014b. ‘The Syrian Islamic Council.’ 13 May. Syria in Crisis (Carnegie Endowment for International Peace) [http://carnegieendowment.org/syriaincrisis/?fa=55580; Accessed: 25 August 2015].Google Scholar

Pierson, Paul. 2000. ‘Increasing Returns, Path Dependence, and the Study of Politics.’ American Political Science Review. 94(2):251–267.Google Scholar

Qutb, Sayyid. 2000. Social Justice in Islam. Trans. Hardie, John B.. Rev Ed. Oneonta, NY: Islamic Publications International.Google Scholar

Rabasa, Angel M. et al. 2004. The Muslim World After 9/11. Santa Monica, CA: RAND Corporation [www.rand.org/pubs/monographs/MG246; Accessed 22 August 2015].Google Scholar

Rahman, Fazlur. 1984. Islam and Modernity: Transformation of an Intellectual Tradition. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Google Scholar

Ramadan, Tariq. 2004. Western Muslims and the Future of Islam. Oxford–New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar

Ramadan, Tariq. 2009. Radical Reform: Islamic Ethics and Liberation. Oxford–New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar

Ramadan, Tariq. 2010. What I Believe. Oxford–New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar

Rashid, Ahmed. 2010. Taliban: Militant Islam, Oil and Fundamentalism in Central Asia. 2nd Ed. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.Google Scholar

Reagin, Nancy R. 1995. A German Women’s Movement: Class and Gender in Hanover, 1880–1933. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press.Google Scholar

Reichmuth, Stefan. 1989. ‘New Trends in Islamic Education in Nigeria: A Preliminary Account.’Die Welt des Islams 29 (1): 41–60.Google Scholar

Reichmuth, Stefan. 1996. ‘Education and the Growth of Religious Associations Among Yoruba Muslims: The Ansar-Ud-Deen Society of Nigeria.’ Journal of Religion in Africa 26 (4): 365–405.Google Scholar

Reid, Rebecca. 2015. ‘Prostitution Row: A “Male Sex Deficit” – What about Us Horny Women?’ The Telegraph, 6 August [www.telegraph.co.uk/women/sex/11786742/Prostitution-row-Sex-deficit-what-about-us-horny-women.html; Accessed 22 August 2015].Google Scholar

Rendall, Jane. 1985. The Origins of Modern Feminism: Women in Britain, France and the United States, 1780–1860. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.Google Scholar

Reuters. 2015. Russia says Militants in Syria are Moving Armor Close to Mosques. [www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-russia-targets-idUSKCN0S02AV20151006; Accessed 10 March 2016].Google Scholar

Roald, Anne Sofie. 2001. Women in Islam: The Western Experience. London–New York: Routledge.Google Scholar

Robinson, David. 2004. Muslim Societies in African History. Cambridge–New York: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Robinson, Francis. 1993. ‘Technology and Religious Change: Islam and the Impact of Print.’ Modern Asian Studies 27 (1): 229–51.Google Scholar

Robinson, Francis. 1997. ‘Ottomans-Safavids-Mughals: Shared Knowledge and Connective Systems.’ Journal of Islamic Studies 8 (2): 151–84.Google Scholar

Robinson, Francis. 1999. ‘Religious Change and the Self in Muslim South Asia since 1800.’ South Asia: Journal of South Asian Studies 22 (1): 13–27.Google Scholar

Robinson, Francis. 2001. The ‘Ulama of Farangi Mahall and Islamic Culture in South Asia. London: C Hurst & Co Publishers Ltd.Google Scholar

Robinson, Francis. 2002. ‘Islam and the West: Clash of Civilisations?’ Asian Affairs 33 (3): 307–20.Google Scholar

Robinson, Francis. 2003. Islam and Muslim History in South Asia. Oxford–New Delhi: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar

Robinson, Francis. 2008. ‘Islamic Reform and Modernities in South Asia.’ Modern Asian Studies 42 (2–3): 259–81.Google Scholar

Robinson, Francis, ed. 1996. The Cambridge Illustrated History of the Islamic World. Cambridge–New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Roded, Ruth. 2008. Women in Islam and the Middle East: A Reader. Rev. Ed. London–New York: IB Tauris.Google Scholar

Roded, Ruth. 2013. ‘Muslim Women Reclaim the Life-Story of the Prophet: ῾A᾽isha ῾Abd Al-Raḥmān, Assia Djebar, and Nadia Yassine.’ The Muslim World 103 (3): 334–46.Google Scholar

Rogan, Eugene. 2011. The Arabs: A History. Rev. Ed. London: Penguin.Google Scholar

Roy, Olivier. 1996. The Failure of Political Islam. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar

Ryan, Mary P. 1978. ‘A Women’s Awakening: Evangelical Religion and the Families of Utica, New York, 1800–1840.’ American Quarterly 30 (5): 602–23.Google Scholar

Saliba, George. 2011. Islamic Science and the Making of the European Renaissance. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Google Scholar

Salvatore, Armando. 1999. Islam and the Political Discourse of Modernity. Reading: Ithaca Press.Google Scholar

Schacht, Joseph. 1957. ‘Islam in Northern Nigeria.’ Studia Islamica 8: 123–46.Google Scholar

Scott, Joan W., ed. 1996. Feminism and History. Oxford–New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar

Seale, Patrick. 1990. Asad: The Struggle for the Middle East. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.Google Scholar

Seedat, Fatima. 2013. ‘When Islam and Feminism Converge.’ The Muslim World 103 (3): 404–20.Google Scholar

Self, Will. 2011. ‘Honey Money: The Power of Erotic Capital by Catherine Hakim – Review.’ The Guardian, August 19, sec. Books. [www.theguardian.com/books/2011/aug/19/honey-money-catherine-hakim-review; Accessed 19 August 2015].Google Scholar

Sen, Amartya. 1995. ‘Gender Inequality and Theories of Justice.’ In Nussbaum, Martha C. and Glover, Jonathan, eds. Women, Culture and Development: A Study of Human Capabilities. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 259–73.Google Scholar

Sewell, W. H. 1996. ‘Three Temporalities: Towards an Eventful Sociology.’ In McDonald, T. J., ed. The Historical Turn in the Human Sciences. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.Google Scholar

Shagari, Shehu. 1978. Uthman Dan Fodio: The Theory and Practice of His Leadership. Lagos: Islamic Publications Bureau.Google Scholar

Shah, Aqil. 2014. The Army and Democracy: Military Politics in Pakistan. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar

Shehabuddin, Elora. 2008. ‘Jamaat-i-Islami in Bangladesh: Women, Democracy and the Transformation of Islamist Politics.’ Modern Asian Studies. 42(2/3): 577–603.Google Scholar

Shiozaki, Yuki. 2015. ‘From Mecca to Cairo: Changing Influences on Fatwas in Southeast Asia.’ In Bano, Masooda and Sakurai, Keiko, eds. Shaping Global Islamic Discourses: The Role of Al-Azhar, Al-Medina and Al-Mustafa. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 167–89.Google Scholar

Siddiqui, Anjum. 2006. India and South Asia: Economic Developments in the Age of Globalization. Armonk, NY: ME Sharpe.Google Scholar

Simonsen, Jørgen Bæk, ed. 2005. Youth and Youth Culture in the Contemporary Middle East. Aarhus: Aarhus University Press.Google Scholar

Sisters in Islam. 2015. ‘Empowering Voices for Change’ [www.sistersinislam.org.my/; Accessed 19 August 2015].Google Scholar

Sivan, Emmanuel. 1990. Radical Islam: Medieval Theology and Modern Politics. Rev. Ed. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.Google Scholar

Stansell, Christine. 2010. The Feminist Promise: 1792 to the Present. New York: Modern Library.Google Scholar

Starett, Gregory. 1998. Putting Islam to Work: Education, Politics and Religious Transformation in Egypt. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.Google Scholar

Stark, Rodney, and Finke, Roger. 2000. Acts of Faith: Explaining the Human Side of Religion. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.Google Scholar

Stewart, C. C. 1985. ‘Introduction: Popular Islam in Twentieth-Century Africa.’ Africa 55 (4): 363–68.Google Scholar

Stewart, Devin J., Lowry, Joseph, and Toorawa, Shawkat M.. 2004. Law and Education in Medieval Islam: Studies in Memory of George Makdisi. Cambridge: Gibb Memorial Trust.Google Scholar

Stites, Richard. 1978. The Women’s Liberation Movement in Russia: Feminism, Nihilism, and Bolshevism, 1860–1930. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar

Sturdee, Nick. 2013. ‘BBC Documentary Examines Syria’s State TV Channel Al Ikhbariya.’ The Guardian, February 10, sec. Media. [www.theguardian.com/media/2013/feb/10/bbc-documentary-syria-state-television; Accessed 19 August 2015].Google Scholar

Taji-Farouki, Suha, ed. 2006. Modern Muslim Intellectuals and the Qur’an. Oxford: Oxford University Press–The Institute of Ismaili Studies.Google Scholar

Talbot, Ian. 2009. Pakistan: A Modern History. 3rd Ed. London: C Hurst & Co Publishers Ltd.Google Scholar

Taylor, Barbara. 2003. Mary Wollstonecraft and the Feminist Imagination. Cambridge–New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Taylor, Charles. 2002. ‘Modern Social Imaginaries’. Public Culture 14 (1): 91–124.Google Scholar

Taylor, Charles. 2007. A Secular Age. Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar

Thanawi, Ashraf ‘Ali. 1992. Perfecting Women: Maulana Ashraf ‘Ali Thanawi’s Bihishti Zewar. Trans. Metcalf, Barbara D.. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.Google Scholar

Thurston, Alex. 2015. ‘Ahlussunnah: A Preaching Network from Kano to Medina and Back.’ In Bano, Masooda and Sakurai, Keiko, eds. Shaping Global Islamic Discourses: The Role of Al-Azhar, Al-Medina and Al-Mustafa. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 93–116.Google Scholar

Tibenderana, Peter Kazenga. 1983. ‘The Emirs and the Spread of Western Education in Northern Nigeria, 1910–1946.’ The Journal of African History 24 (4): 517–34.Google Scholar

Trimingham, J. Spencer. 1959. Islam in West Africa. Oxford: Clarendon Press.Google Scholar

Trimingham, J. Spencer. 1980. The Influence of Islam upon Africa. 2nd Ed. London: Longmans.Google Scholar

Umar, Muhammad S. 2001. ‘Education and Islamic Trends in Northern Nigeria: 1970s-1990s.’ Africa Today 48 (2): 127–50.Google Scholar

Umar, Muhammad S. 2004. ‘Mass Islamic Education and the Emergence of Female Ulama in Northern Nigeria: Background, Trends, and Consequences.’ In Reese, Scott S., ed. The Transmission of Learning in Islamic Africa. Leiden–Boston: Brill, 99–120.Google Scholar

Umar, Muhammad S. 2006. Islam and Colonialism: Intellectual Responses of Muslims of Northern Nigeria to British Colonial Rule. Leiden–Boston: Brill.Google Scholar

UNDP. 2014. The 2014 Human Development Report – Sustaining Human Progress: Reducing Vulnerabilities and Building Resilience. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar

van Dam, Nikolaos. 2011. The Struggle for Power in Syria: Politics and Society under Asad and the Ba’th Party. London: IB Tauris.Google Scholar

Vatuk, Sylvia. 2008. ‘Islamic Feminism in India: Indian Muslim Women Activists and the Reform of Muslim Personal Law.’ Modern Asian Studies 42 (2–3): 489–518.Google Scholar

Waddy, Charis. 1980. Women in Muslim History. London–New York: Longmans.Google Scholar

Wadud, Amina. 1999. Qur’an and Woman: Re-Reading the Sacred Text from a Woman’s Perspective. New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar

Wakili, Haruna. 2009. ‘Islam and the Political Arena in Nigeria: The Ulama and the 2007 Elections.’ Working Paper No. 09-004. Buffett Centre – Northwestern University. [http://buffett.northwestern.edu/publications-projects/working-papers/isita/islam-and-the-political-arena-in-nigeria.html; Accessed 19 August 2015].Google Scholar

Weismann, Itzchak. 2005. ‘The Politics of Popular Religion: Sufis, Salafis, and Muslim Brothers in 20th-Century Hamah.’ International Journal of Middle East Studies 37 (1): 39–58.Google Scholar

Weiss, Anita, and Khattak, Saba Gul. 2013. Development Challenges Confronting Pakistan. Sterling, VA: Kumarian Press.Google Scholar

Whitehouse, Harvey. 2004. Modes of Religiosity: A Cognitive Theory of Religious Transmission. Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira Press.Google Scholar

Wickham, Carrie Rosefsky. 2002. Mobilizing Islam: Religion, Activism and Political Change in Egypt. New York: Columbia University Press.Google Scholar

Willis, John Ralph, ed. 2012a. Studies in West African Islamic History, 1: The Cultivators of Islam. London–New York: Routledge.Google Scholar

Willis, John Ralph, ed. 2012b. Studies in West African Islamic History, 2: The Evolution of Islamic Institutions. London–New York: Routledge.Google Scholar

Willis, John Ralph, ed. 2012c. Studies in West African Islamic History, 3: The Growth of Arabic Literature. London–New York: Routledge.Google Scholar

Wollstonecraft, Mary. 2014. A Vindication of the Rights of Woman. London: Vintage Book.Google Scholar

Wolpert, Stanley. 1984. Jinnah of Pakistan. Oxford–New York: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar

World Bank. 2010. The Status and Progress of Women in the Middle East and North Africa. Washington, DC: World Bank. [http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTMENA/Resources/MENA_Gender_Compendium-2009-1.pdf; Accessed 15 August 2015].Google Scholar

Yalman, Suzan. 2000. Based on original work by Komaroff, Linda. ‘The Art of the Umayyad Period (661–750).’ In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art [www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/umay/hd_umay.htm; Accessed 25 August 2015].Google Scholar

Yamani, Mai, ed. 1996. Feminism and Islam: Legal and Literary Perspectives. New York: New York University Press.Google Scholar

Yeld, E. R. 1960. ‘Islam and Social Stratification in Northern Nigeria.’ The British Journal of Sociology 11 (2): 112–28.Google Scholar

Zaidan, Jurji. 2012. The Caliph’s Sister: Harun Al-Rashid and the Fall of the Persians. Trans. Boullata, Issa J.. Bethesda, MD: Zaidan Foundation.Google Scholar

Zaman, Muhammad Qasim. 2008. Ashraf ‘Ali Thanawi: Islam in Modern South Asia. Oxford: Oneworld Publications.Google Scholar

Zaman, Muhammad Qasim. 2010. The Ulama in Contemporary Islam: Custodians of Change. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar

Zaman, Muhammad Qasim. 2011. ‘Pakistan: Shari’a and the State.’ In Hefner, Robert W., ed. Shari’a Politics: Islamic Law and Society in the Modern World. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 207–43.Google Scholar

Zaman, Muhammad Qasim. 2012. Modern Islamic Thought in a Radical Age: Religious Authority and Internal Criticism. Cambridge–New York: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Zeghal, Malika. 2007. ‘The “Recentering” of Religious Knowledge and Discourse: The Case of al-Azhar in Twentieth-Century Egypt.’ In Hefner, Robert W. and Zaman, Muhammad Qasim, eds. Schooling Islam: The Culture and Politics of Modern Muslim Education. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 107–30.Google Scholar

Ziring, Lawrence. 1971. The Ayub Khan Era; Politics in Pakistan, 1958–1969. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press.Google Scholar

Zoepf, Katherine. 2006. ‘Islamic Revival in Syria Is Led by Women.’ The New York Times. [www.nytimes.com/ref/world/middleeast/29syria.html; Accessed 29 August 2015].Google Scholar