Introduction: transitions to fatherhood in context

Expectations of men as parents have changed over the last century, from the traditional position of the distant breadwinner to a more equal and nurturing father (Plantin et al, 2003; Edwards et al, 2009). As well as breadwinning, caring activities and time spent with children – forms of emotional work – are important dimensions of fathering that can have an impact on child development and family harmony (Coltrane, 1996; Lamb and Lewis, 2004; Dermott, 2008).

As discussed in Chapter Two, European society has been marked by major social change over the past 50 years: the rise of the Women's Movement, an increase in two-income families alongside increases in women's labour force participation, the introduction of parental leave, and shifting marriage and divorce patterns. In this context there is a good deal of discussion about the ‘new fatherhood’ that has become a political issue in some countries (Hobson and Morgan, 2002). Men's increasing interest in fathering has been identified by researchers in different countries (Brandth and Kvande, 2003; Duyvendak and Stavenuiter, 2004; Brannen and Nilsen, 2006). For example, Hobson and Fahlén (2009), drawing on the European Social Survey (ESS) for 2004, show how the vast majority of fathers think that reconciling work and family life is a high priority. Many fathers also wanted to reduce their working hours substantially in favour of more time with their families, although this was not always reflected in actual behaviour. However, despite whether men work full time or reduce their work time, they were still deeply emotionally engaged in their children. In Miller's (2011) interview study the men reported very strong ties to their children and showed a greater commitment to daily practices of hands-on caring than ever before. These attitudes have also gradually started to affect organisations’ policies and practices for fathers (Haas and Hwang, 2009). However, in recent years arguments about the ‘business case‘, emphasising efficiency and organisational change, have changed the debate: ‘greedy organisations’ are challenging both modern motherhood and fatherhood.

There are significant differences among welfare policies aimed at fathers between the countries in the study (Fagnani et al, 2004; see Chapter Two, this volume).