This chapter will explain the rather unconventional methods of procuring intelligence through espionage, an activity that was usually, but not necessarily, state-sponsored and which took place in times that preceded hostilities between states – the declaration of war being the key moment when we can draw a distinction between espionage and reconnaissance. It is the intention of this chapter to review the role of espionage in Byzantine foreign policy and to define and analyse the official and unofficial channels through which the Byzantines procured information that shaped their foreign policies and prompted them to become more adaptable to their enemies’ strategies and tactics. I ask how the central authorities reacted to spies and espionage activity. Were their liberties and rights respected? What kind of information did they report back to their (pay)masters and in what way was this information processed?

Once I have identified the channels that transmitted intelligence used to provide guidance and direction to commanders in support of their strategic and tactical decisions, I will put the conclusions of this chapter into perspective. My aim is to paint a broader picture of what that says about the influence each culture had on its neighbours. Do we see nations that pursued a more defensive strategy and adapted more easily to the changing tactics of their enemies? Finally, can we say that certain cultures were more susceptible to tactical changes than others, and if so what were the deeper reasons behind this phenomenon?

Markets, Ports, Fairs, Taverns and Inns

In the field of international news, the dependence on the mercantile community has been marked since ancient times; merchants would be questioned by the local authorities on their city or port of origin about what kind of intelligence they were able to gather during their travels in or through enemy territory.