In Chapter Two we discussed the way in which the discourse of public participation has evolved within public policy in the UK and beyond, and described the way in which the practice of participation has developed in relation to this. In this chapter we consider other influences on these processes of democratisation. First, we discuss how concerns about the way in which public services are managed and governed, and about the decline of political participation through voting, have led to an advocacy of more deliberative forms of politics and policy making as key elements of modern governance (for example, Newman, 2001). Second, we discuss the move to more inclusive forms of politics and decision making that have derived from autonomous action among community, identity and user groups. We discuss the significance of social movement theory in understanding such action, and relate this to conceptualisations of social justice as requiring recognition as well as redistribution (for example, Young, 1990, 2000; Fraser, 1997). This body of literature is also helpful in considering the extent to which new opportunities for public participation represent processes of empowerment or incorporation.

Governance, participation and deliberative Democracy

We begin by relating theories of deliberative democracy to ideas about changes in the nature of governance. The focus here is on the process of decision making – how should policy decisions be reached in advanced democracies and what does this imply for the way in which public involvement in policy making should be designed?

From a governance perspective, opening up decision making about public policies and services to wider influence is seen as a means both of improving the legitimacy of decisions and enhancing the responsiveness of the services that are provided. Action to secure user and public involvement has been prompted by evidence of loss of faith in formal politics and evidence of declining trust in public services (Barnes and Prior, 1996; Coulson, 1998), and is also driven by more positive commitments to public accountability based on consent achieved through public discourse (Ranson and Stewart, 1994). As we saw in Chapter Two, a wide range of purposes and aspirations are suggested for improving public participation in public services. Such participation is perceived to offer a solution to diverse ills affecting the public realm and to be capable of producing positive outcomes for the participants themselves.