ON THE NIGHT of 18 September 1931, Chang Hsueh-liang was being entertained at the British legation in Peking. After returning home he received the report that the Japanese had occupied Mukden, having killed at least eighty Chinese soldiers. He immediately instructed his troops to put their arms back in the depot and refrain from all forms of retaliation or provocation. Chang had taken the decision on his own; but he had received the authority for this non-resistance policy from Chiang Kai-shek who was involved in the civil war in the south. This generated a great debate in China over the proper course of action to be taken towards Japan; the military men were against military action because of the inferiority of Chinese armies, while the general public, especially the students, were in favour, regardless of the consequences.

‘WAR IN DISGUISE’

Japanese forces took over Mukden on 19 September, neutralizing Chang’s small air force. The Kwantung army pressed on to other parts, using the rail network. In violation of the explicit orders of Tokyo, it pushed north; and major cities were occupied against minimal opposition culminating in the entry to Harbin in February. The Japanese sought to set up compliant civil and military local governments through accommodating Chinese leaders, primarily because their troop numbers were inferior to Chinese forces. Their largest problem was in Tsitsihar where the opposition of Ma Chan-shan and the uncertainty over soviet intervention made a settlement difficult. The other problem was westward to Newchwang and especially Chinchow where the armies of Chang Hsueh-liang were still a factor. Missionaries reported that things in Manchurian cities were gradually restored to normal. But commercial conditions were generally bad because of the depression; and there was an on-going guerrilla war, partly bandit-inspired, partly soviet-inspired.

Instead of risking a major confrontation, China appealed to the League of Nations of which both China and Japan were members. China had become a member of the League of Nations Council as recently as September. It was of course realized that the United States and the Soviet Union, possible sources of help, were not League members.