Introduction

The right to be represented was a central issue in the Dutch war of independence (1568–1648) that resulted in the Republic of the Seven United Provinces. The Netherlands, including Belgium, became a centralised kingdom in 1813 after the Napoleonic occupation; in 1830, however, the Belgians revolted to become an independent kingdom. The basic rules for representative government were formulated in 1848; in 1917 universal suffrage, male and female, was won. The Dutch political system is based on proportional representation; the most important legislative body is the second chamber, the first chamber having limited powers. A multi-party system makes coalition governments a permanent feature; political parties are key actors in the policy process.

Until the 1960s the political system was remarkably stable; Dutch political parties followed the fault lines of society, forming Catholic, Protestant and Social Democratic ‘pillars’. An extensive system of corporatist ‘advisory boards’ played an important role in the ‘consensus democracy’, providing institutionalised access to the policy-making process mainly for business and professional interests and labour unions belonging to the three pillars (Andeweg and Irwin 1993).

From the 1960s onwards, when ‘new’ social movements demanded more ‘democracy’, representation was regularly on the agenda in three types of arenas: in the media, political parties and parliament. A new political party, D66, demanding a more confrontational style of politics, entered parliament with seven members in 1966. The women's movement was another important factor.