Introduction

Facial reconstruction (otherwise known as facial approximation) is the process utilised to reproduce the facial appearance of an individual by relating the skeletal structure to the overlying soft tissue (Gerasimov 1971; Prag and Neave 1997; Taylor 2001; Wilkinson 2004). Facial reconstruction has been used to provoke recognition in forensic identification investigations worldwide, and is a powerful forensic tool that significantly enhances the chances of identification of the deceased.

The Manchester mummy team has been at the forefront of research into the facial depiction of ancient Egyptians since its conception in 1973 (David 1986; David and Tapp 1992). Initial forensic investigations of Egyptian mummies housed at The Manchester Museum involved Richard Neave, a medical artist from the University of Manchester (Neave 1979). In 1973, Neave reconstructed the faces of the Two Brothers, a pair of twelfth Dynasty (c. 1900 b.c.) Egyptians. This early work followed a rather simple, undeveloped method and Neave stated that ‘whilst a great deal of attention was paid to the areas of muscle insertion and their probable effect upon the face, we put very little effort into developing the muscle groups themselves’ (Prag and Neave 1997).

Neave used the tissue depth data produced by Kollman and Buchly (1898) from cadavers of White Europeans for these reconstructions and worked exclusively with skull casts and sculptors' clay and often built the neck structure onto the facial reconstructions to give the finished head a more balanced appearance.