Biological evolution may not have a trajectory, or “arrow,” but many of us still cling to the belief that cultural evolution is different. Just look at our progress since the Paleolithic. Indeed, the idea of “progress” – material, moral, spiritual – is one of the oldest and most seductive themes in social theory. It seems to tap into a deep-rooted human bias toward optimism and confidence in the future, though this bright sentiment also seems to be eternally at war with “the dark side” – a more pessimistic and sometimes apocalyptic strain. Nevertheless, many social theorists over the years have viewed cultural progress as the ineluctable result of a law-like, deterministic process.

An Ancient Idea

Aristotle was perhaps the earliest and most influential representative of this tradition. Schooled as a biologist as well as a social theorist, Aristotle believed that all of nature – including humankind – is endowed with a set of capacities or forces of growth and development that are directed by their inherent properties toward predetermined ends. Just as an acorn contains within itself the “plan” for growing into an oak tree, according to Aristotle's famous metaphor, so individuals and families are by nature fitted for becoming part of a “polis” – an organized, interdependent community that may grow and develop over time.