Rome's massive population of around one million in the age of Augustus, a number unequalled by any European city before the early nineteenth century, was primarily sustained by means of a regular inflow of food and manpower from all over the Roman world. Contributions from Rome's provincial subjects also financed the grandiose building projects, expensive public amenities and lavish entertainments of the capital city. They paid for the court and civil administration, supported the extravagant lifestyle of the Rome-based aristocracy and fed and equipped an army of around 300,000–400,000 men.

In this chapter I ask how these demands affected the livelihood of the populations of Italy and the provinces. My aims are, of necessity, limited. It is not possible to show precisely how living standards were affected all over the Roman world, nor to measure changes in the frequency and intensity of food crises. Without aiming at unrealistically precise estimates, we can assess the impact of taxes and rents, and identify certain long-term developments in provincial society, such as a steady increase of public ownership of land and other economic assets, and a concentration of wealth in the hands of the few. These and other matters, notably, the level of civic patriotism and initiative among leaders of local government, and the manner in which the Romans husbanded the agricultural surplus which was now under their control, have implications for the subsistence and survival of communities and households.

APPROPRIATION OF WEALTH

The Roman state under the Principate exacted tax somewhat more efficiently than preceding governments (Roman and non-Roman) had done, and over a wide area.