Introduction

The preceding chapters in this volume have taken the reader from Great Britain, the archetype of the modern, liberal state as it emerged over the course of the nineteenth century in Europe, to Portugal, perhaps the saddest object lesson of the perils of empire for European states in the nineteenth century. Although the contrasting trajectories of the two maritime powers from their Methuen Treaty of 1703 could be taken as the organizing theme of the entire volume, there are simply too many variant trajectories taken by the other seven European nation-states that are discussed. The editors have attempted to rein in any impulse toward facile moralizing by focusing in each case on the way central governments met their expenditures, whatever may have been the strategic goals of the ruling authorities at the time. Raising taxes sufficient to carry out the programs of the governments always met resistance, both from those members of society opposing the programs and from those merely resisting taxes in principle.

Following the conclusion of the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic wars, however, there was throughout Europe an appreciation of the universal appeal of the mantra of 1789 – liberté, fraternité, et égalité. Translated into effective practice wherever Napoléon's troops appeared, the revolutionary slogan meant freedom from taxes in kind and increased occupational mobility, accompanied by companionship within a demonstrating mob or a conscript militia and equality of taxes now payable in money rather than in kind.