In this chapter I examine a number of features that involve the way people talk about time (i.e. tense), modality (i.e. ability, permission and obligation) and aspect (i.e. the manner of an action). The tense/modal/aspect system of English has changed dramatically over the past several hundred years. I will focus on three areas. Each one has been involved in extensive variation and change. The first involves changes in the future temporal reference system as the older forms shall and will give way to a newer construction with going to. The second involves reorganization of the modal system, in particular the expression of obligation/necessity. In this case an old modal, must, is fading away as two other forms, i.e. have to and have got to, compete for this meaning. The third involves transformations in the forms used to express stative possession, i.e. ownership and personal attributes. Where once have was the only variant, over the past several hundred years have got has encroached on its territory. Examination of these systems of grammar in the Roots Archive may reveal earlier stages in the development of these areas of grammar. In turn, this may provide a window on how grammars evolve.

The future

The future is an ideal choice for cross-community analysis in the context of ongoing change. Its major variants, going to and will (often ’ll), as in (1), are widely used and shared by most, if not all, varieties of English. Although people sometimes think there is a meaning difference between these forms, in running conversation they are often interchangeable, as in the examples in (1).