Chemical analysis

David F. Gray

doi:10.1017/CBO9781316036570.019

16 - Chemical analysis

Published online by Cambridge University Press: 05 March 2015

David F. Gray

Show author details

David F. Gray: Affiliation:
University of Western Ontario

Book contents

Get access

Summary

When we look at stellar spectra, we soon recognize the presence of many chemicals. The lines of hydrogen dominate the photospheric spectra of hot stars, but with declining temperature, thousands of lines from other species grow stronger while the lines of hydrogen weaken. One of the tasks of the stellarphotosphere analyst is to disentangle the effects of temperature, pressure, turbulence, and so on from the effects of chemical composition. In broad strokes, the results of chemical analyses tell us that hydrogen is overwhelmingly the most abundant element, comprising ≈90% of the atoms in a normal stellar photosphere, and helium comes next with ≈10%. The remaining elements, often referred to as “metals,” comprise a sprinkling – like salt in a bowl of broth – adding savor and interest. Most of the spectral lines are caused by these low-abundance elements.

Besides our natural curiosity to know what stars are made of, we are motivated to perform chemical composition studies on other fronts. To be more specific, almost any study in stellar atmospheres presupposes some chemical composition. Chemical evidence tells us about the nuclear reactions taking place in stars, internal mixing of material, penetration depths of convection zones, diffusion and gravitational settling, or accretion of material from interstellar space. Lithium and carbon isotope abundances are signatures of the evolutionary stage of a star. The evolution of our galaxy is traceable in part through the differences in chemical composition among stars, since we expect stars formed at different times and in different places to retain information concerning the composition of the material from which they formed.

Type: Chapter
Information: The Observation and Analysis of Stellar Photospheres , pp. 384 - 422

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781316036570.019 [Opens in a new window]

Publisher: Cambridge University Press

Print publication year: 2005

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Abt, H. A. 2000. Ap. J. 544, 933.CrossRef

Adelman, S. J. 1973. Ap. J. 183, 95.CrossRef

Adelman, S. J. 1978. Pub. Ast. Soc. Pacific 90, 766.CrossRef

Adelman, S. J. 1987. Mon. Not. Roy. Ast. Soc. 228, 573.CrossRef

Adelman, S. J. & T., Lanz, eds. 1988. I.A.U. workshop on Ap stars, Element Abundance Analysis. (Lausanne: Inst. d'Astron.).Google Scholar

Adelman, S. J., A. S., Adelman, & O. I., Pintado 2003. Ast. Ap. 397, 267.

Alexander, J.B. 1967. Mon. Not. Roy. Ast. Soc. 137, 41.CrossRef

Aller, L.H. 1961. The Abundance of the Elements. (New York: Interscience).Google Scholar

Aller, L.H. 1987. Spectroscopy of Astrophysical Plasmas, ed. A., Dalgarno & D., Layzer. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press), Chapter 4.Google Scholar

Anders, E. & M., Ebihara 1982. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 46, 2363.CrossRef

Ann, H.B. & Y. H., Kang 1986. Ap. Space Sci. 118, 325.

Asplund, M., Å., Nordlund, R., Trampedach, & R.F., Stein 2000. Ast. Ap. 359, 743.

Asplund, M.N. Grevesse, A. J., Sauval, C. Allende, Prieto, & D., Kiselman 2004. Ast.Ap. 417, 751.

Athay, R.G., & A., Skumanich 1968. Ap. J. 152, 211.CrossRef

Babcock, H.W. 1960. Stars and Stellar Systems, Stellar Atmospheres, Vol. VI, ed. J. L., Greenstein. (Chicago: Univ. Chicago), p. 282.Google Scholar

Balachandran, S. 1995. Ap. J. 446, 203.CrossRef

Baldry, I. K., D.W., Kurtz, & T. R., Bedding 1998. Mon. Not. Roy. Ast. Soc. 300, L39.CrossRef

Barstow, M.A., S. A., Good, J.B., Holberg, et al. 2003. Mon. Not. Roy. Ast. Soc. 341, 870.CrossRef

Baschek, B., T., Garz, H., Holweger, & J., Richter 1970. Ast. Ap. 4, 229.

Becker, S.A. & I., Iben, Jr. 1979. Ap. J. 232, 831.CrossRef

Bely, F. 1966. Abundance Determinations in Stellar Spectra, I.A.U. Symp. 26, ed. H., Hubenet. (London: Academic), p. 254.Google Scholar

Bessell, M.S. & J., Norris 1984. Ap. J. 285, 622.CrossRef

Bidelman, W.P. 1956. Vistas Astron. 2, 1428.CrossRef

Bidelman, W.P. & P.C., Keenan 1951. Ap. J. 114, 473.CrossRef

Biémont, E.N., Grevesse, L.M. Faires, G., Marsden, J. E., Lawler, & W., Whaling 1989. Ast. Ap. 209, 391.

Boato, G. 1954. Geochim. Cosmochim. Ast. 6, 209.CrossRef

Boesgaard, A.M. 1987. Ap. J. 321, 967.CrossRef

Boesgaard, A.M. 1989. Ap. J. 336, 798.CrossRef

Boesgaard, A.M. & M. J., Tripicco 1986a. Ap. J. Lett. 302, L49.CrossRef

Boesgaard, A.M. & M. J., Tripicco 1986b. Ap. J. 303, 724.CrossRef

Boesgaard, A.M. & R.J., Lavery 1986. Ap. J. 309, 762.CrossRef

Boesgaard, A. M., E., Armengaud, & J. R., King 2003. Ap. J. 582, 410.CrossRef

Boesgaard, A. M., K.G., Budge, & E.E., Burck 1988a. Ap. J. 325, 749.CrossRef

Boesgaard, A. M., K.G., Budge, & M.E., Ramsay 1988b. Ap. J. 327, 389.CrossRef

Boesgaard, A.M. & J. R., King 2002. Ap. J. 565, 587.CrossRef

Bohlender, D.A. 1989. Ap. J. 346, 459.CrossRef

Bohlender, D. A., M.M., Dworetsky, & C.M., Jomaron 1998. Ap. J. 504, 533.CrossRef

Bond, H. E. 1980. Ap. J. Suppl. 44, 517.CrossRef

Bond, H. E. 1981. Ap. J. 248, 606.CrossRef

Booth, A. J. & D. E., Blackwell 1983. Mon. Not. Roy. Ast. Soc. 204, 777.CrossRef

Bord, D. J. & C. R., Cowley 2002. Solar Phy. 211, 3.CrossRef

Bord, D. J., C.R., Cowley, & D., Mirijanian 1998. Solar Phy. 178, 221.CrossRef

Borra, E.F., J.D., Landstreet, & L., Mestel 1982. Ann. Rev. Ast. Ap. 20, 191.CrossRef

Borra, E.F., J.D., Landstreet, & I., Thompson 1983. Ap. J. Suppl. 53, 151.CrossRef

Borrero, J. M., L. R., Bellot Rubio, P. S., Barklem, & J.C. del Toro, Iniesta 2003. Ast.Ap. 404, 749.

Burris, D. L., C. A., Pilachowski, T. E., Armandroff, C., Sneden, J. J., Cowan, & H., Roe 2000. Ap. J. 544, 302.CrossRef

Burstein, D. 1985. Pub. Ast. Soc. Pacific 97, 89.CrossRef

Carbon, D.F., G.E., Langer, D., Butler, et al. 1982. Ap. J. Suppl. 49, 207.CrossRef

Cardon, B. L., P. L, Smith, J.M., Scalo, L., Testerman, & W., Whaling 1982. Ap. J. 260, 395.CrossRef

Cayrel, G., R., Cayrel, & R., Foy 1977. Ast. Ap. 54, 797.

Cayrel, R. 1996. Ast. Ap. Rev. 7, 217.

Cayrel, R. & G. Cayrel, de Strobel 1966. Ann. Rev. Ast. Ap. 4, 1.CrossRef

Cayrel, R. & J., Jugaku 1963. Ann. d'Ap. 26, 495.

Cayrel de Strobel, G. & C., Bentolila 1989. Ast. Ap. 211, 324.

Cayrel de Strobel, G., C., Bentolila, B., Hauck, & A., Duquennoy 1985. Ast. Ap. Suppl. 59, 145.

Cayrel de Strobel, G., M.-N., Perrin, R., Cayrel, & Y., Lebreton 1989. Ast. Ap. 225, 369.

Charbonneau, P. & G., Michaud 1988. Ap. J. 334, 746.CrossRef

Charbonnel, C. 1994. Ast. Ap. 282, 811.

Chmielewski, Y.E., Friel, G. Cayrel, de Strobel, & C., Bentolila 1992. Ast. Ap. 263, 219.

Christian, C.A. & H.A., Smith 1983. Pub. Ast. Soc. Pacific 95, 169.CrossRef

Christlieb, N., B., Gustafsson, A. J., Korn, et al. 2004. Ap. J. 603, 708.CrossRef

Climenhaga, J.L., B.L., Harris, J.T., Holts, & J., Smolinski 1977. Ap. J. 215, 836.CrossRef

Cohen, J.G. 1979. Ap.J. 231, 751.CrossRef

Conti, P.S. 1965. Ap.J. Suppl. 11, 47.CrossRef

Corliss, C.H. & W. R., Bozman 1962. Nat. Bur. Stand. Mon. 53.

Cowley, C.R. & A.P., Cowley 1964. Ap.J. 140, 713.CrossRef

Cowley, C.R. & M., Frey 1989. Ap.J. 346, 1030.CrossRef

Cowley, C.R. & G., Mathys 1998. Ast. Ap. 339, 165.

Cowley, C.R., W.L., Wiese, J., Fuhr, & L., Kuznetsova 1999. Allen's Astrophysical Quantities, 4th edn, ed. A.N., Cox. (New York: AIP-Springer-Verlag), p. 53.Google Scholar

Crawford, D.L. 1975. Ast.J. 80, 955.CrossRef

Da Costa, G.S. & P. L., Cottrell 1980. Ap. J. Lett. 236, L83.CrossRef

Daflon, S., K., Cunha, K., Butler, & V., Smith 2001. Ap.J. 563, 325.CrossRef

Deliyannis, C.P., P., Demarque, & S.D., Kawaler 1990. Ap. J. Suppl. 73, 21.CrossRef

Deliyannis, C.P., S. G., Ryan, T. C., Beers, & J. A., Thorburn 1994. Ap. J. Lett. 425, L21.CrossRef

Deutsch, A.J. 1956. Pub. Ast. Soc. Pacific 68, 92.CrossRef

Deutsch, A.J. 1958. Handbuch. Physik 51, 689.CrossRef

Drake, J.J., V.V., Smith, & N.B., Suntzeff 1994. Ap.J. 430, 610.CrossRef

Duncan, D.K. 1981. Ap.J. 248, 651.CrossRef

Edvardsson, B., J., Andersen, B., Gustafsson, et al. 1993. Ast. Ap. 275, 101.

Eggen, O.J., D., Lynden-Bell, & A.R., Sandage 1962. Ap.J. 136, 748.CrossRef

Epstein, S. & H.P., Taylor Jr. 1970. Science 167, 533.CrossRef

Farragiana, R. 1989. Ast. Ap. 224, 162.

Farragiana, R. & M., Gerbaldi 2003. Ast. Ap. 398, 697.

Ford, A., R.D., Jefferies, B., Smalley, et al. 2002. Ast. Ap. 393, 617.

Foy, R. 1981. Ast. Ap. 93, 315.

François, P., M., Spite, & F., Spite 1988. Ast. Ap. 191, 267.

François, P., E., Depagne, V., Hill, et al. 2003. Ast. Ap. 403, 1105.

Freeman, K.C. & J., Norris 1981. Ann. Rev. Ast. Ap. 19, 319.CrossRef

Friel, E., G., Cayrel de Strobel, Y., Chmielewski, et al. 1993. Ast. Ap. 274, 825.

Garstang, R.H. 1971. Topics in Modern Physics, ed. W.E., Brittin & H., Odabasi. (Boulder: Associated Univ.), p. 153.Google Scholar

Garstang, R.H. 1981. Pub. Ast. Soc. Pacific 93, 641.CrossRef

Garz, T., H., Holweger, M., Kock, & J., Richter 1969. Ast. Ap. 2, 446.

Goebel, J.H., J.D., Bregman, D.M., Cooper, D., Goorvitch, S.R., Langhoff, & F.C., Witteborn 1983. Ap.J. 270, 190.CrossRef

Goldberg, L., E.A., Müller, & L.H., Aller 1960. Ap.J. Suppl. 5, 1.CrossRef

Gordon, C.P. 1968. Ap.J. 153, 915.CrossRef

Gray, D.F. 1988. Lectures on Spectral-Line Analysis: F, G, and K Stars. (Arva, Ontario: The Publisher).Google Scholar

Gray, D.F., H.R., Scott, & J.E., Postma 2002. Pub. Ast. Soc. Pacific 114, 536.CrossRef

Greenstein, J.L. 1948. Ap.J. 107, 151.CrossRef

Grevesse, N. 1984. Frontiers of Astronomy and Astrophysics, Seventh European Regional Ast. Meeting, ed. R., Pallavicini. (Florence: Italian Ast. Soc.), p. 71.Google Scholar

Grevesse, N. & A.J., Sauval 1998. Space Sci. Rev. 85, 161.CrossRef

Grevesse, N. & J.P., Swings 1970. Solar Phys. 13, 19.CrossRef

Gustafsson, B. 1983. Pub. Ast. Soc. Pacific 95, 101.CrossRef

Gustafsson, B. 1989. Ann. Rev. Ast. Ap. 27, 701.CrossRef

Hall, D.N.B. 1973. Ap. J. 182, 977.CrossRef

Hannaford, P., R.M., Lowe, N., Grevesse, E., Biémont, & W., Whaling 1982. Ap. J. 261, 736.CrossRef

Harris, H.C. 1981. Ast. J. 86, 707.CrossRef

Harris, M.J. & D.L., Lambert 1984. Ap.J. 285, 674.CrossRef

Harris, M.J., D.L., Lambert, & V.V., Smith 1985. Ap. J. 299, 375.CrossRef

Harris, M.J., D.L., Lambert, & V.V., Smith 1988. Ap.J. 325, 768.CrossRef

Harris, M.J., D.L., Lambert, K.H., Hinkle, B., Gustafsson, & K., Eriksson 1987. Ap.J. 316, 294.CrossRef

Hartoog, M.R., C.R., Cowley, & S.J., Adelman 1974. Ap. J. 187, 551.CrossRef

Hauck, B. & P.C., Keenan, eds. 1976. Abundance Effects in Classification, I.A.U. Symp. 72. (Dordrecht: Reidel).CrossRef Google Scholar

Herbig, G.H. 1965. Ap.J. 141, 588 & 1592.CrossRef

Hinkel, K., Ll., Wallace, J., Valenti, & D., Harmer 2000. Visible and Near Infrared Atlas of the Arcturus Spectrum, 3727-9300Å. (San Francisco: Ast. Soc. Pacific).Google Scholar

Hobbs, L.M. & D.K., Duncan 1987. Ap.J. 317, 796.CrossRef

Hubenet, H., ed., 1966. Abundance Determinations in Stellar Spectra, I.A.U. Symp. 26. (London: Academic).

Hunger, K. 1986. Hydrogen Deficient Stars and Related Objects, ed. K., Hunger, D., Schönberner & N. Kameswara, Rao. (Dordrecht: Reidel), p. 261.CrossRef Google Scholar

Iben, I. Jr. 1964. Ap. J. 140, 1631.CrossRef

Iben, I. Jr., A., Renzini, & D.N., Schramm 1977. Advanced Stages in Stellar Evolution, ed. P., Bouvier & A., Maeder. (Sauverny: Geneva Obs), p. 1.Google Scholar

Israelian, G., N.C., Santos, M., Mayor, & R., Rebolo 2001. Nature 411, 163.CrossRef

Ivans, I. I., C., Sneden, R.P., Kraft, N.B., Suntzeff, V.V., Smith, G. E., Langer, & J.P., Fulbright 1999. Ast.J. 118, 1273.CrossRef

Ivans, I. I., R.P., Kraft, C., Sneden, G.H., Smith, R.M., Rich, & M., Shetrone 2001. Ast.J. 122, 1438.CrossRef

Johnson, J.A. 2002. Ap.J. Suppl. 139, 219.CrossRef

Keller, L.D., C.A., Pilachowski, & C., Sneden 2001. Ast. J. 122, 2554.CrossRef

Khokhlova, V.L., J.B., Rice, & W.H., Wehlau 1986. Ap.J. 307, 768.CrossRef

Kiselman, D. 1994. Ast. Ap. Suppl. 104, 23.

Kochukhov, O. 2003. Ast. Ap. 404, 669.

Kochukhov, O. & T., Ryabchikova 2001. Ast. Ap. 374, 615.

Kraft, R.P., N.B., Suntzeff, G.E., Langer, et al. 1982. Pub. Ast. Soc. Pacific 94, 55.CrossRef

Kroll, R., H., Schneider, F.A., Catalano, & H.H., Voigt 1987. Ast. Ap. Suppl. 67, 195.

Kurtz, D.W. 1982. Mon. Not. Roy. Ast. Soc. 200, 807.CrossRef

Kurtz, D.W., V.G., Elkin, & G., Mathys 2003. Mon. Not. Roy. Ast. Soc. 343, L5.CrossRef

Kurucz, R.L. 1981. Semiempirical Calculation of gf Values: Fe II, Smithsonian Spec. Report No. 390. (Cambridge, MA: Smithsonian Inst.).Google Scholar

Kurucz, R.L. & E.H., Avrett 1981. Solar Spectrum Synthesis. I. A Sample Atlas from 224 to 300 nm, Smithsonian Spec. Report No. 391. (Cambridge, MA: Smithsonian Inst.).Google Scholar

Lambert, D.L. 1976. Mem. Roy. Ast. Soc. Liége 9, 405.

Lambert, D.L. & C., Sneden 1977. Ap. J. 215, 597.CrossRef

Landstreet, J.D. 1988. Ap. J. 326, 967.CrossRef

Lane, M.C. & J.B., Lester 1987. Ap. J. Suppl. 65, 137.

Langer, G.E., R.P., Kraft, D.F., Carbon, E., Friel, & J.B., Oke 1986. Pub. Ast. Soc. Pacific 98, 473.CrossRef

Lawler, J.E., G., Bonvallet, & C., Sneden 2001a. Ap. J. 556, 452.CrossRef

Lawler, J.E., M.E., Wickliffe, C.R., Cowley, & C., Sneden 2001b. Ap. J. Suppl. 137, 341.CrossRef

Lawler, J.E., M.E., Wickliffe, E.A., den Hartog, & C., Sneden 2001c. Ap. J. 563, 1075.CrossRef

Laws, C. & G., Gonzalez 2001. Ap.J. 553, 405.CrossRef

Little-Marenin, I.R. & S.J., Little 1984. Ap. J. 283, 188.CrossRef

Lü, P.K., D.W., Dawson, A.R., Upgren, & E.W., Weis 1983. Ap. J. Suppl. 52, 169.CrossRef

Luck, R.E. 1982. Ap. J. 256, 177.CrossRef

Luck, R.E. & H.E., Bond 1980. Ap. J. 241, 218.CrossRef

Mathys, G. 1990. Ast. Ap. 232, 151.

Mathys, G. & T., Lanz 1990. Ast. Ap. 230, L21.

Matteucci, F. & L., Greggio 1986. Ast. Ap. 154, 279.

May, M., J., Richter, & J., Wichelmann 1974. Ast. Ap. Suppl. 18, 405.

McClure, R.D. 1984. Pub. Ast. Soc. Pacific 96, 117.CrossRef

Meissner, K.W., L.G., Mundie, & P.H., Stelson 1948. Phys. Rev. 74, 932.CrossRef

Menzel, D.H. 1936. Ap.J. 84, 462.CrossRef

Michaud, G. 1982. Ap.J. 258, 349.CrossRef

Michaud, G. 1986. Ap.J. 302, 650.CrossRef

Michaud, G., D., Tarasick, Y., Charland, & C., Pelletier 1983. Ap.J. 269, 239.CrossRef

Minnaert, M. & G.F.W., Mulders 1931. Z. f. Ap. 2, 165.

Minnaert, M. & C., Slob 1931. Proc. K. Acad. Amst. 34, 542.

Molaro, P. & F., Castelli 1990. Ast. Ap. 228, 426.

Moore, C.E., M.G.J., Minnaert, & J., Houtgast 1966. The Solar Spectrum 2935Å to 8770Å, Nat. Bureau Stand. Monograph 61. (Washington, DC: US Govt. Printing Office).CrossRef Google Scholar

Morel, M., C., Bentolila, G., Cayrel, & B., Hauck 1976. Abundance Effects in Classification, I.A.U. Symp. 72. (Dordrecht: Reidel), p. 223.CrossRef Google Scholar

Müller, E.A. 1966. Abundance Determinations in Stellar Spectra, I.A.U. Symp. 26, ed. H., Hubenet. (London: Academic), p. 171.Google Scholar

Myerscough, V.P. 1968. Ap.J. 153, 421.CrossRef

Nissen, P.E., M., Asplund, V., Hill, & S., D'Odorico 2000. Ast. Ap. Lett. 357, L49.

Norris, J., P.L., Cottrell, K.C., Freeman, & G.S., Da Costa 1981. Ap.J. 244, 205.CrossRef

Norris, J.E., T.C., Beers, & S.G., Ryan 2000. Ap.J. 540, 456.CrossRef

Osmer, P.S. & D.M., Peterson 1974. Ap.J. 187, 117.CrossRef

Pagel, B.E.J. 1973. Space Sci. Rev. 15, 1.CrossRef

Pallavicini, R., M., Cerruti-Sola, & D.K., Duncan 1987. Ast. Ap. 174, 116.

Pannekoek, A. & B.B., van Albada 1946. Pub. Ast. Inst. Univ. Amst. 6, part 2.

Paulson, D.B., C., Sneden, & W.D., Cochran 2003. Ast.J. 125, 3185.CrossRef

Pavlenko, Ya.V. & A., Magazzù 1996. Ast. Ap. 311, 961.

Peery, B.F. Jr. 1971. Ap.J. Lett 163, L1.CrossRef

Perrin, M.-N. 1986. Ast. Ap. 159, 239.

Perrin, M.-N., G. Cayrel, de Strobel, & M., Dennefeld 1988. Ast. Ap. 191, 237.

Peterson, R.C. & B.W., Carney 1979. Ap.J. 231, 762.CrossRef

Peterson, R.C., C.M., Dalle Ore, & R.L., Kurucz 1993. Ap.J. 404, 333.CrossRef

Pickering, J.C., A.P., Thorne, & R., Perez 2001. Ap.J. Suppl. 132, 403.CrossRef

Pilachowski, C.A. & L.M., Hobbs 1988. Pub. Ast. Soc. Pacific 100, 336.CrossRef

Pilachowski, C., C., Sneden, E., Freeland, & J., Casperson 2003. Ast.J. 125, 794.CrossRef

Pinsonneault, M. 1997. Ann. Rev. Ast. Ap. 35, 557.CrossRef

Preston, G.W. 1970. Ap.J. 160, 1059.CrossRef

Przybilla, N., K., Butler, & R.P., Kudritzki 2001a. Ast. Ap. 379, 936.

Przybilla, N., K., Butler, S.R., Becker, & R.P., Kudritzki 2001b. Ast. Ap. 369, 1009.

Rebolo, R., J.E., Beckman, & P., Molaro 1988. Ast. Ap. 192, 192.

Reyniers, M., H., Van Winckel, E., Biémont, & P., Quinet 2002. Ast. Ap. Lett. 395, L35.

Roman, N.G. 1954. Ast. J. 59, 307.CrossRef

Ross, J. & L., Aller 1968. Ap.J. 153, 235.CrossRef

Russell, H.N. 1929. Ap.J. 70, 11.CrossRef

Rutten, R.J. & E.B.J., van der Zalm 1984. Ast. Ap. Suppl. 55, 143.

Ryabchikova, T.A., I.S., Savanov, A.P., Hatzes, W.W., Weiss, & G., Handler 2000. Ast. Ap. 357, 981.

Ryan, S.G. & C.P., Deliyannis 1998. Ap. J. 500, 398.CrossRef

Ryan, S.G., J.E., Norris, & T.C., Beers 1999. Ap.J. 523, 654.CrossRef

Salaris, M. & A., Weiss 2001. Ast. Ap. 376, 955.

Sandage, A. & C., Kowal 1986. Ast.J. 91, 1140.CrossRef

Sargent, W.L.W. 1964. Ann. Rev. Ast. Ap. 2, 297.CrossRef

Scalo, J.M. 1977. Ap.J. 215, 194.CrossRef

Scalo, J.M. & G.E., Miller 1978. Ap.J. 225, 523.CrossRef

Shavrina, A.V., N.S., Polosukhina, J., Zverko, et al. 2001. Ast. Ap. 372, 571.

Shetrone, M.D. 2003. Ap.J. 585, L45.CrossRef

Sigut, T.A. A. 2001. Ast. Ap. 377, L27.

Sills, A. & C.P., Deliyannis 2000. Ap.J. 544, 944.CrossRef

Skumanich, A. 1972. Ap.J. 171, 565.CrossRef

Smith, G.H. 1987. Pub. Ast. Soc. Pacific 99, 67.CrossRef

Smith, G.H. & J., Norris 1983. Ap. J. 264, 215.CrossRef

Smith, G.R. & D.L., Harmer 1982. Mon. Not. Roy. Ast. Soc. 198, 273.CrossRef

Smith, V.V. & D.L., Lambert 1986. Ap. J. 311, 843.CrossRef

Smith, V.V., D.M., Terndrup, & N.B., Suntzeff 2002, Ap. J. 579, 832.CrossRef

Sneden, C. 1973. Ap.J. 184, 839.CrossRef

Sneden, C. & C.A., Pilachowski 1986. Ap. J. 301, 860.CrossRef

Soderblom, D.R. 1983. Ap.J. Suppl. 53, 1.CrossRef

Soderblom, D.R., M.S., OeyD.R.H., Johnson, & R.P. S., Stone 1990. Ast. J. 99, 595.CrossRef

Spite, F. & M., Spite 1982. Ast. Ap. 115, 357.

Spite, M., F., Spite, & J.P., Maillard 1984. Ast. Ap. 141, 56.

Spite, M., P., François, P.E., Nissen, & F., Spite 1996. Ast. Ap. 307, 172.

Stepien, K. & H., Muthsam 1987. Ast. Ap. 185, 225.

Stift, M.J. & F., Leone 2003. Ast. Ap. 398, 411.

Straizys, V. 1985. Calibration of Fundamental Stellar Quantities, I.A.U. Symp. 111, ed. D. S., Hayes, L.E., Pasinetti, & A.G.D., Philip. (Dordrecht: Reidel), p. 285.CrossRef Google Scholar

Strömgren, B. 1940. Festschrift für Elis Strömgren. (Copenhagen: Munksgaard), p. 218.Google Scholar

Strömgren, B. 1963. Basic Astronomical Data, ed. K.Aa., Strand. (Chicago: Univ. Chicago), p. 123.Google Scholar

Struve, O. & C.T., Elvey 1934. Ap.J. 79, 409.CrossRef

Suess, H.E. 1964. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. Washington 52, 387.CrossRef

Suess, H.E. & H.C., Urey 1956. Rev. Mod. Phys. 28, 53.CrossRef

Takada-Hidai, M., Y., Takeda, S., Sato, et al. 2002. Ap. J. 573, 614.CrossRef

Taylor, B.J. 1998. Pub. Ast. Soc. Pacific 110, 699 & 708.CrossRef

Théado, S. & S., Vauclair 2001. Ast. Ap. 375, 70.

Thorburn, J.A. 1994. Ap. J. 421, 318.CrossRef

Thorén, P. & S., Feltzing 2000. Ast. Ap. 363, 692.

Traub, W. & F.L., Roesler 1971. Ap. J. 163, 629.CrossRef

Trefzger, C.F., D.F., Carbon, G.E., Langer, N.B., Suntzeff, & R.P., Kraft 1983. Ap. J. 266, 144.CrossRef

Trundle, C., P.L., Dufton, D.J., Lennon, S.J., Smartt, & M.A., Urbaneja 2002. Ast. Ap. 395, 519.

Unsöld, A. 1948. Z. f. Ap. 24, 306.

Unsöld, A. 1955. Physik der Sternatmosphären, 2nd edn. (Berlin: Springer-Verlag).CrossRef Google Scholar

Unsöld, A. 1971. Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. London Ser. A, 270, 23.CrossRef

van der Held, E.F.M. 1931. Z.f. Phys. 70, 508.CrossRef

Vandenberg, D.A. & G.H., Smith 1988. Pub. Ast. Soc. Pacific 100, 314.CrossRef

van't Veer-Menneret, C. 1963. Ann d'Ap. 26, 289.

van't Veer-Menneret, C., C., Burkhart, & M.F., Coupry 1988. Ast. Ap. 203, 123.

Vanysek, V. 1977. Comets, Asteroids, and Meteorites, Interrelations, Evolution and Origins, ed. A.H., Delsemme. (Toledo, OH: Univ. Toledo), p. 499.Google Scholar

Vauclair, S. 1988. Ap.J. 335, 971.CrossRef

Vauclair, S. & G., Vauclair 1982. Ann. Rev. Ast. Ap. 20, 37.CrossRef

Vauclair, S., J., Hardorp, & D.M., Peterson 1979. Ap.J. 227, 526.CrossRef

Villamariz, M.R., A., Herrero, S.R., Becker, & K., Butler 2002. Ast. Ap. 388, 940.

Voigt, W. 1912. Münch. Ber.603.Google Scholar

Wallerstein, G. & M., Carlson 1960. Ap.J. 132, 276.CrossRef

Wallerstein, G. & P.S., Conti 1969. Ann. Rev. Ast. Ap. 7, 99.CrossRef

Wallerstein, G., I., Iben, Jr., P., Parker, et al. 1997. Rev. Mod. Phys. 69, 995.CrossRef

Warner, B. 1964. Mon. Not. Roy. Ast. Soc. 127, 413.CrossRef

Warner, B. 1965. Mon. Not. Roy. Ast. Soc. 129, 263.CrossRef

Whaling, W., P., Hannaford, R.M., Lowe, E., Biémont, & N., Grevesse 1985. Ast. Ap. 153, 109.

Wheeler, J.C., C., Sneden, & J. W., Truran Jr., 1989. Ann. Rev. Ast. Ap. 27, 279.CrossRef

Wilden, B.S., B.F., Jones, D.N.C., Lin, & D.R., Soderblom 2002. Ast. J. 124, 2799.CrossRef

Withbroe, G.L. 1971. The Menzel Symposium on Solar Physics, Atomic Spectra, and Gaseous Nebulae, ed. K.B., Gebbie, Nat. Bur. Stand. Spec. Pub. 353, (Washington, DC: US Govt. Printing Office) p. 127.Google Scholar

Wolff, S.C. 1983. The A-Stars: Problems and Perspectives, NASA SP-463.Google Scholar

Wrubel, M.H. 1949. Ap.J. 109, 66.CrossRef

Wrubel, M.H. 1954. Ap.J. 119, 51.CrossRef

Youssef, N.H. & N.M., Khalil 1988. Ast. Ap. 203, 378.

Zappala, R.R. 1972. Ap.J. 172, 57.CrossRef

Zöchling, J. & H., Muthsam 1987. Ast. Ap. 176, 75.

Book contents

16 - Chemical analysis

Summary

Access options

References

Save book to Kindle

Save book to Dropbox

Save book to Google Drive