This introduction to Greek philosophy, which began with the Milesians in Asia Minor, finishes with Lucretius and Cicero in the last century of the Roman Republic. After this period philosophy in the Roman Empire tended to focus on ethics (rather than logic or natural science) in the search for guidelines for living the best life, under whatever circumstances. Stoic ethical theory was most favoured, but the rigidity of the early formal Stoicism was adapted to deal with contemporary problems, and its practitioners were ready to find support and encouragement in other philosophies, even accepting aspects of Epicureanism. Three well-known figures popularized this trend from different standpoints: Seneca, at one time adviser to Nero, Epictetus, the former Greek slave, and the emperor Marcus Aurelius. Within a general Stoic framework the letters of Seneca, the teachings of Epictetus in the “Handbook” (Encheiridion), and the Meditations of Aurelius had an immediate appeal, and they are still read today for their direct approach, sound advice and good sense.

Epicureanism was handed down from its founder as a complete system, which meant that there was little development in the philosophy. Although it was officially out of favour in Rome for rejecting the state gods, speaking against participation in politics and generally advocating an easygoing lifestyle, it had many adherents. These included Cicero's friend Atticus, Cassius the conspirator against Caesar, the poet Horace (who called himself “a pig from the sty of Epicurus”), and Plotina, the wife of the emperor Trajan.