Born: May 19, 1925, Omaha, NE

Education: Junior high school, Lansing, MI

Died: February 21, 1965, New York, NY

The most influential black nationalist of the 1960s, Malcolm rose from poverty and delinquency. While incarcerated, he joined the Nation of Islam (NOI), was national spokesman until parting with imam Elijah Muhammad, and founded the Muslim Mosque, Inc. and Organization of Afro-American Unity (OAAU) in 1964.

Using Muhammad Speaks, mass rallies, or mainstream media, he spoke out. Calling whites devils, Malcolm censured the US “white power structure” for racism, colonialism, and imperialism. He condemned the civil rights movement for black self-hatred, thus seeking racial integration. Rather blacks must disavow a slave mentality and join NOI, which stressed blacks’ culture and advancing their businesses, families, schools, and communities. Citing racist attacks on peaceful demonstrators and police brutality, he urged self-defense “by any means necessary.”

He was both respected and reviled. Many civil rights activists revered him, some organizing the Revolutionary Action Movement (1963). Others embraced OAAU and, in the wake of his assassination, formed vanguards of the Black Power and Pan-African movements. Still, many in the press considered Malcolm a demagogue who espoused race hate and violence, for example blaming him for riots that engulfed New York and six other cities in 1964. The Autobiography of Malcolm X (1965) became a best-selling nonfiction book.