Skip to main content Accessibility help
×
Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-gxg78 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-25T04:52:01.828Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

3 - Consumer Goals and Motivation

from 1 - Consumer Psychology of Individuals

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  30 March 2023

Cait Lamberton
Affiliation:
Wharton School, University of Pennsylvania
Derek D. Rucker
Affiliation:
Kellogg School, Northwestern University, Illinois
Stephen A. Spiller
Affiliation:
Anderson School, University of California, Los Angeles
Get access

Summary

Research on goals and motivation started almost a century ago and continues to thrive today. In this chapter, we distill the rich literature on consumer goals and motivation by presenting recent works against the backdrop of foundational theories. We start with a discussion of how consumers initiate goal pursuit. Next, we examine the factors that help consumers stay motivated in the face of internal and external obstacles, and what happens once consumers attain their goals. We then explore research on how consumers’ goal pursuit interacts with the surrounding social world. Finally, we suggest some broad areas for future inquiries on consumer goals and motivation.

Type
Chapter
Information
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2023

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Aarts, H., Dijksterhuis, A., & De Vries, P. (2001). On the psychology of drinking: Being thirsty and perceptually ready. British Journal of Psychology, 92(4), 631642.Google Scholar
Aarts, H., Gollwitzer, P. M., & Hassin, R. R. (2004). Goal contagion: Perceiving is for pursuing. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 87(1), 2337.Google Scholar
Amar, M., Ariely, D., Ayal, S., Cryder, C. E., & Rick, S. I. (2011). Winning the battle but losing the war: The psychology of debt management. Journal of Marketing Research, 48(Special Issue), S38S50.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Amir, O., & Ariely, D. (2008). Resting on laurels: The effects of discrete progress markers as subgoals on task performance and preferences. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 34(5), 11581171.Google ScholarPubMed
Anderson, J. R. (1983). A spreading activation theory of memory. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 22(3), 261295.Google Scholar
Austin, J. T., & Vancouver, J. B. (1996). Goal constructs in psychology: Structure, process, and content. Psychological Bulletin, 120(3), 338375.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bagozzi, R. P., & Dholakia, U. (1999). Goal setting and goal striving in consumer behavior. Journal of Marketing, 63(Special Issue), 1932.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychological Review, 84(2), 191215.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bandura, A. (1989). Regulation of cognitive processes through perceived self-efficacy. Developmental Psychology, 25(5), 729735.Google Scholar
Bandura, A., Barbaranelli, C., Caprara, G. V., & Pastorelli, C. (2001). Self‐efficacy beliefs as shapers of children’s aspirations and career trajectories. Child Development, 72(1), 187206.Google Scholar
Bargh, J. A. (1990). Goal and intent: Goal-directed thought and behavior are often unintentional. Psychological Inquiry, 1(3), 248251.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bargh, J. A., & Barndollar, K. (1996). Automaticity in action: The unconscious as repository of chronic goals and motives. In Gollwitzer, P. M., & Bargh, J. A. (Eds.). The Psychology of Action: Linking Cognition and Motivation to Behavior (pp. 457481). The Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Bargh, J. A., Gollwitzer, P. M., Lee-Chai, A., Barndollar, K., & Trötschel, R. (2001). The automated will: Nonconscious activation and pursuit of behavioral goals. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81(6), 10141027.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Basu, S., & Ng, S. (2021). $100 a month or $1,200 a year? Regulatory focus and the evaluation of temporally framed attributes. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 31(2), 301318.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baumeister, R. F. (2002). Yielding to temptation: Self-control failure, impulsive purchasing, and consumer behavior. Journal of Consumer Research, 28(4), 670676.Google Scholar
Baumeister, R. F., Bratslavsky, E., Finkenauer, C., & Vohs, K. D. (2001). Bad is stronger than good. Review of General Psychology, 5(4), 323370.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baumeister, R. F., Heatherton, T., & Tice, D. M. (1994). Losing Control: How and Why People Fail at Self-Regulation. Academic Press.Google Scholar
Bayuk, J. B., Janiszewski, C., & Leboeuf, R. A. (2010). Letting good opportunities pass us by: Examining the role of mind-set during goal pursuit. Journal of Consumer Research, 37(4), 570583.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bem, D. J. (1972). Self-perception theory. In Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 6 (pp. 162). Academic Press.Google Scholar
Berglas, S., & Jones, E. E. (1978). Drug choice as a self-handicapping strategy in response to noncontingent success. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 36(4), 405417.Google Scholar
Berkowitz, L., & LePage, A. (1967). Weapons as aggression-eliciting stimuli. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 7(2, Pt. 1), 202207.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bindra, D. (1974). A motivational view of learning, performance, and behavior modification. Psychological Review, 81(3), 199213.Google Scholar
Biner, P. M. (1987). Effects of difficulty and goal value on goal valence. Journal of Research in Personality, 21(3), 395404.Google Scholar
Blankenship, A. B., Crossley, A., Heidingsfield, M. S., Herzog, H., & Kornhauser, A. (1949). Questionnaire preparation and interviewer technique. Journal of Marketing, 14(3), 399433.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bodner, R., & Drazen, P. (1996). The emergence of private rules in a self-signaling model. International Journal of Psychology, 31, 36523653.Google Scholar
Bolton, L. E., Reed, A., Volpp, K. G., & Armstrong, K. (2008). How does drug and supplement marketing affect a healthy lifestyle? Journal of Consumer Research, 34(5), 713726.Google Scholar
Bommaraju, R., & Hohenberg, S. (2018). Self-selected sales incentives: Evidence of their effectiveness, persistence, durability, and underlying mechanisms. Journal of Marketing, 82(5), 106124.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bonezzi, A., Brendl, C. M., & De Angelis, M. (2011). Stuck in the middle: The psychophysics of goal pursuit. Psychological Science, 22(5), 607612.Google Scholar
Brehm, J. W., & Self, E. A. (1989). The intensity of motivation. Annual Review of Psychology, 40(1), 109131.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brehm, J. W., Wright, R. A., Solomon, S., Silka, L., & Greenberg, J. (1983). Perceived difficulty, energization, and the magnitude of goal valence. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 19(1), 2148.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brendl, C. M., & Higgins, E. T. (1996). Principles of judging valence: What makes events positive or negative? In Zanna, M. P. (Ed.). Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, Vol. 28, (pp. 95160). Academic Press.Google Scholar
Brendl, C. M., Markman, A. B., & Messner, C. (2003). The devaluation effect: Activating a need devalues unrelated objects. Journal of Consumer Research, 29(4), 463473.Google Scholar
Britt, S. H. (1950). The strategy of consumer motivation. Journal of Marketing, 14(5), 666674.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brown, J. S. (1948). Gradients of approach and avoidance responses and their relation to level of motivation. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 41(6), 450465.Google Scholar
Brunstein, J. C. (1993). Personal goals and subjective well-being: A longitudinal study. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 65(5), 10611070.Google Scholar
Bryksina, O. (2020). When and why choices for others diverge from consumers’ own salient goals. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 30(4), 579597.Google Scholar
Bullard, O., & Manchanda, R. V. (2017). How goal progress influences regulatory focus in goal pursuit. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 27(3), 302317.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cannon, C., & Rucker, D. D. (2020). The communal consumer: Longitudinal evidence for the distinction between nurturing and affiliative motives. Journal of the Association for Consumer Research, 5(3), 345355.Google Scholar
Carlson, K. A., Meloy, M. G., & Miller, E. G. (2013). Goal reversion in consumer choice. Journal of Consumer Research, 39(5), 918930.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Carver, C. S., & Scheier, M. F. (1982). Control theory: A useful conceptual framework for personality–social, clinical, and health psychology. Psychological Bulletin, 92(1), 111135.Google Scholar
Carver, C. S., & Scheier, M. F. (2001). On the Self-Regulation of Behavior. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Chan, E., & Briers, B. (2019). It’s the end of the competition: When social comparison is not always motivating for goal achievement. Journal of Consumer Research, 46(2), 351370.Google Scholar
Chang, C. C., Lin, B. C., & Chang, S. S. (2011). The relative advantages of benefit overlap versus category similarity in brand extension evaluation: The moderating role of self-regulatory focus. Marketing Letters, 22(4), 391404.Google Scholar
Chartrand, T. L., & Bargh, J. A. (1996). Automatic activation of impression formation and memorization goals: Nonconscious goal priming reproduces effects of explicit task instructions. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 71(3), 464478.Google Scholar
Chartrand, T. L., Huber, J., Shiv, B., & Tanner, R. J. (2008). Nonconscious goals and consumer choice. Journal of Consumer Research, 35(2), 189201.Google Scholar
Chernev, A., & Gal, D. (2010). Categorization effects in value judgments: Averaging bias in evaluating combinations of vices and virtues. Journal of Marketing Research, 47(4), 738747.Google Scholar
Choi, J., Li, J. Y., & Samper, A. (2019). The influence of health motivation and calorie ending on preferences for indulgent foods. Journal of Consumer Research, 46(3), 606619.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chun, W. Y., Kruglanski, A. W., Sleeth-Keppler, D., & Friedman, R. S. (2011). Multifinality in implicit choice. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 101(5), 11241137.Google Scholar
Converse, P. D., Huegy, H. W., & Mitchell, R. V. (1958). Elements of Marketing. Sir Isaac Pitman and Sons.Google Scholar
Cornwell, J. F., Franks, B., & Higgins, E. T. (2019). The proper mix: Balancing motivational orientations in goal pursuit. Journal of the Association for Consumer Research, 4(1), 1320.Google Scholar
Crowe, E., & Higgins, E. T. (1997). Regulatory focus and strategic inclinations: Promotion and prevention in decision-making. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 69(2), 117132.Google Scholar
Cryder, C., Botti, S., & Simonyan, Y. (2017). The charity beauty premium: Satisfying donors’ “want” versus “should” desires. Journal of Marketing Research, 54(4), 605618.Google Scholar
Cryder, C. E., Loewenstein, G., & Scheines, R. (2013). The donor is in the details. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 120(1), 1523.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Custers, R., & Aarts, H. (2005). Positive affect as implicit motivator: On the nonconscious operation of behavioral goals. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 89(2), 129142.Google Scholar
Dallas, S. K., Liu, P. J., & Ubel, P. A. (2019). Don’t count calorie labeling out: Calorie counts on the left side of menu items lead to lower calorie food choices. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 29(1), 6069.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2010). Self‐determination. The Corsini Encyclopedia of Psychology, 12.Google Scholar
Deci, E. L., Vallerand, R. J., Pelletier, L. G., & Ryan, R. M. (1991). Motivation and education: The self-determination perspective. Educational Psychologist, 26(3–4), 325346.Google Scholar
Dhar, R., Huber, J., & Khan, U. (2007). The shopping momentum effect. Journal of Marketing Research, 44(3), 370378.Google Scholar
Dhar, R., & Simonson, I. (1999). Making complementary choices in consumption episodes: Highlighting versus balancing. Journal of Marketing Research, 36(1), 2944.Google Scholar
Dhar, R., & Wertenbroch, K. (2012). Self-signaling and the costs and benefits of temptation in consumer choice. Journal of Marketing Research, 49(1), 1525.Google Scholar
Dichter, E. (1947). Psychology in market research. Harvard Business Review, 25(4), 432443.Google Scholar
Dichter, E. (1964). Handbook of Consumer Motivations: The Psychology of the World of Objects. McGraw-Hill.Google Scholar
Dichter, E. (1978). Interpretive versus descriptive research. In Sheth, J. N. (Ed.). Research in Marketing, Vol. 1 (pp. 5378). JAI Press.Google Scholar
Doebel, S., & Munakata, Y. (2018). Group influences on engaging self-control: Children delay gratification and value it more when their in-group delays and their out-group doesn’t. Psychological Science, 29(5), 738748.Google Scholar
Dubé, J. P., Luo, X., & Fang, Z. (2017). Self-signaling and prosocial behavior: A cause marketing experiment. Marketing Science, 36(2), 161186.Google Scholar
Duckworth, A. L., & Steinberg, L. (2015). Unpacking self‐control. Child Development Perspectives, 9(1), 3237.Google Scholar
Dunning, D. (2007). Self‐image motives and consumer behavior: How sacrosanct self‐beliefs sway preferences in the marketplace. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 17(4), 237249.Google Scholar
Eichengreen, B. (1994). Institutions and Economic Growth: Europe after World War II. Centre for Economic Policy Research.Google Scholar
Emmons, R. A. (1989). The personal striving approach to personality. In Pervin, L. A. (Ed.). Goal Concepts in Personality and Social Psychology (pp. 87126). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.Google Scholar
Emmons, R. A. (1992). Abstract versus concrete goals: Personal striving level, physical illness, and psychological well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 62(2), 292300.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Emmons, R. A., & King, L. A. (1988). Conflict among personal strivings: Immediate and long-term implications for psychological and physical well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54(6), 10401040.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Emmons, R. A., King, L. A., & Sheldon, K. (1993). Goal conflict and the self-regulation of action. In Wegner, D. M., & Pennebaker, J. W. (Eds.). Handbook of Mental Control (pp. 528551). Prentice-Hall, Inc.Google Scholar
Eskreis-Winkler, L., & Fishbach, A. (2019). Not learning from failure – The greatest failure of all. Psychological Science, 30(12), 17331744.Google Scholar
Etkin, J. (2016). The hidden cost of personal quantification. Journal of Consumer Research, 42(6), 967984.Google Scholar
Etkin, J., Evangelidis, I., & Aaker, J. (2015). Pressed for time? Goal conflict shapes how time is perceived, spent, and valued. Journal of Marketing Research, 52(3), 394406.Google Scholar
Etkin, J., & Laran, J. (2019). Restricting choice freedom reduces post-choice goal disengagement. Journal of the Association for Consumer Research, 4(1), 3646.Google Scholar
Etkin, J., & Memmi, S. A. (2021). Goal conflict encourages work and discourages leisure. Journal of Consumer Research, 47(5), 716736.Google Scholar
Fennis, B. M., Adriaanse, M. A., Stroebe, W., & Pol, B. (2011). Bridging the intention-a behavior gap: Inducing implementation intentions through persuasive appeals. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 21(3), 302311.Google Scholar
Ferguson, M. J., & Bargh, J. A. (2004). Liking is for doing: The effects of goal pursuit on automatic evaluation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 87(5), 557572.Google Scholar
Fernandez, J. R., & Kruglanski, A. W. (2019). The psychology of multiple goal pursuit: Choices, configurations, and commitments. Journal of the Association for Consumer Research, 4(1), 512.Google Scholar
Festinger, L. (1954). A theory of social comparison processes. Human Relations, 7(2), 117140.Google Scholar
Fishbach, A., & Choi, J. (2012). When thinking about goals undermines goal pursuit. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 118(2), 99107.Google Scholar
Fishbach, A., & Dhar, R. (2005). Goals as excuses or guides: The liberating effect of perceived goal progress on choice. Journal of Consumer Research, 32(3), 370377.Google Scholar
Fishbach, A., Dhar, R., & Zhang, Y. (2006). Subgoals as substitutes or complements: The role of goal accessibility. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 91(2), 232242.Google Scholar
Fishbach, A., & Ferguson, M. J. (2007). The goal construct in social psychology. In Kruglanski, A. W., & Higgins, E. T. (Eds.). Social Psychology: Handbook of Basic Principles (pp. 490515). The Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Fishbach, A., Friedman, R. S., & Kruglanski, A. W. (2003). Leading us not into temptation: Momentary allurements elicit overriding goal activation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84(2), 296309.Google Scholar
Fishbach, A., & Shah, J. Y. (2006). Self-control in action: Implicit dispositions toward goals and away from temptations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 90(5), 820832.Google Scholar
Fishbach, A., Shah, J. Y., & Kruglanski, A. W. (2004). Emotional transfer in goal systems. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 40(6), 723738.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fishbach, A., & Zhang, Y. (2008). Together or apart: When goals and temptations complement versus compete. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 94(4), 547559.Google Scholar
Fishbach, A., Zhang, Y., & Koo, M. (2009). The dynamics of self-regulation. European Review of Social Psychology, 20(1), 315344.Google Scholar
Fishbach, A., Zhang, Y., & Trope, Y. (2010). Counteractive evaluation: Asymmetric shifts in the implicit value of conflicting motivations. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 46(1), 2938.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fishbein, M., & Ajzen, I. (1974). Attitudes towards objects as predictors of single and multiple behavioral criteria. Psychological Review, 81(1), 5974.Google Scholar
Fitzsimons, G. M., & Bargh, J. A. (2003). Thinking of you: Nonconscious pursuit of interpersonal goals associated with relationship partners. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84(1), 148164.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fitzsimons, G. M., Finkel, E. J., & vanDellen, M. R. (2015). Transactive goal dynamics. Psychological Review, 122(4), 648673.Google Scholar
Fitzsimons, G. M., & Fishbach, A. (2010). Shifting closeness: Interpersonal effects of personal goal progress. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 98(4), 535549.Google Scholar
Fitzsimons, G. M., & Shah, J. Y. (2008). How goal instrumentality shapes relationship evaluations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 95(2), 319337.Google Scholar
Förster, J., Higgins, E. T., & Idson, L. C. (1998). Approach and avoidance strength during goal attainment: Regulatory focus and the “goal looms larger” effect. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75(5), 11151131.Google Scholar
Förster, J., Liberman, N., & Higgins, E. T. (2005). Accessibility from active and fulfilled goals. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 41(3), 220239.Google Scholar
Fujita, K., Gollwitzer, P. M., & Oettingen, G. (2007). Mindsets and pre-conscious open-mindedness to incidental information. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 43(1), 4861.Google Scholar
Gai, P. J., & Puntoni, S. (2021). Language and consumer dishonesty: A self-diagnosticity theory. Journal of Consumer Research, 48(2), 333351.Google Scholar
Gamlin, J. (2019). Self-Sabotaging in Consumer Goal Pursuit. Doctoral dissertation, Northwestern University.Google Scholar
Gamlin, J., Dong, P., Labroo, A. A., & Robinson, A. (2019). Evoking goals to be responsible: When political cues increase utilitarian choice. Journal of the Association for Consumer Research, 4(1), 8796.Google Scholar
Gamlin, J., & Touré-Tillery, M. (2017). “Don’t Succumb to My Temptations: Social Avoidance as a Strategy to Protect Valued Goals.” Society for Consumer Psychology, San Francisco.Google Scholar
Glyn, A. (2006). Capitalism Unleashed: Finance, Globalization, and Welfare. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Gneezy, A., Imas, A., Brown, A., Nelson, L. D., & Norton, M. I. (2012). Paying to be nice: Consistency and costly prosocial behavior. Management Science, 58(1), 179187.Google Scholar
Goldsmith, K., Friedman, E. M., & Dhar, R. (2019). You don’t blow your diet on Twinkies: Choice processes when choice options conflict with incidental goals. Journal of the Association for Consumer Research, 4(1), 2135.Google Scholar
Gollwitzer, P. M. (1996). The volitional benefits of planning. In: Gollwitzer, P. M., & Bargh, J. A. (Eds.). The Psychology of Action: Linking Cognition and Motivation to Behavior (pp. 287312). The Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Gollwitzer, P. M. (1999). Implementation intentions: Strong effects of simple plans. American Psychologist, 54(7), 493503.Google Scholar
Gollwitzer, P. (2012). Mindset theory of action phases. In Van Lange, P. A., Kruglanski, A. W., & Higgins, E. T. (Eds.). Handbook of Theories of Social Psychology, Vol. 1 (pp. 526546). SAGE Publications.Google Scholar
Gollwitzer, P. M., & Moskowitz, G. B. (1996). Goal effects on action and cognition. In Higgins, E. T., & Kruglanski, A. W. (Eds.). Social Psychology: Handbook of Basic Principles (pp. 361399). The Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Gollwitzer, P. M., & Sheeran, P. (2009). Self‐regulation of consumer decision making and behavior: The role of implementation intentions. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 19(4), 593607.Google Scholar
Goschke, T., & Kuhl, J. (1993). Representation of intentions: Persisting activation in memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 19(5), 12111226.Google Scholar
Gray, J. S., Ozer, D. J., & Rosenthal, R. (2017). Goal conflict and psychological well-being: A meta-analysis. Journal of Research in Personality, 66, 2737.Google Scholar
Greene, R. L. (1986). Sources of recency effects in free recall. Psychological Bulletin, 99(2), 221228.Google Scholar
Greenwald, A. G. (1980). The totalitarian ego: Fabrication and revision of personal history. American Psychologist, 35(7), 603618.Google Scholar
Greenwald, A. G., & Breckler, S. J. (1985). To whom is the self presented? In Schlenker, B. R. (Ed.), The Self and Social Life (pp. 126145). McGraw-Hill.Google Scholar
Grembowski, D., Patrick, D., Diehr, P., et al. (1993). Self-efficacy and health behavior among older adults. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 34(2), 89104.Google Scholar
Han, E., & Gershoff, A. D. (2019). Lots to do or lots of ways to do it? The role of mood and mind‐set on goal motivation. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 29(2), 187206.Google Scholar
Haws, K. L., Bearden, W. O., & Dholakia, U. M. (2012). Situational and trait interactions among goal orientations. Marketing Letters, 23(1), 4760.Google Scholar
Haws, K. L., Dholakia, U. M., & Bearden, W. O. (2010). An assessment of chronic regulatory focus measures. Journal of Marketing Research, 47(5), 967982.Google Scholar
Heath, C., Larrick, R. P., & Wu, G. (1999). Goals as reference points. Cognitive Psychology, 38(1), 79109.Google Scholar
Heckhausen, H., & Gollwitzer, P. M. (1987). Thought contents and cognitive functioning in motivational versus volitional states of mind. Motivation and Emotion, 11(2), 101120.Google Scholar
Hedgcock, W. M., Vohs, K. D., & Rao, A. R. (2012). Reducing self-control depletion effects through enhanced sensitivity to implementation: Evidence from fMRI and behavioral studies. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 22(4), 486495.Google Scholar
Henry, H. (1958). Motivation Research: Its Practice and Uses for Advertising, Marketing, and Other Business Purposes. F. Ungar Publishing Company.Google Scholar
Higgins, E. T. (1987). Self-discrepancy: A theory relating self and affect. Psychological Review, 94(3), 319340.Google Scholar
Higgins, E. T. (1998). Promotion and prevention: Regulatory focus as a motivational principle. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology 30, 146.Google Scholar
Higgins, E. T. (2000). Making a good decision: Value from fit. American Psychologist, 55(11), 12171230.Google Scholar
Higgins, E. T. (2002). How self-regulation creates distinct values: The case of promotion and prevention decision making. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 12(3), 177191.Google Scholar
Higgins, E. T., & Brendl, C. M. (1995). Accessibility and applicability: Some “activation rules” influencing judgment. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 31(3), 218243.Google Scholar
Higgins, R. L., & Harris, R. N. (1988). Strategic “alcohol” use: Drinking to self-handicap. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 6(2), 191202.Google Scholar
Higgins, R. L., Snyder, C. R., & Berglas, S. (1990). Self-Handicapping: The Paradox That Isn’t. Springer Science & Business Media.Google Scholar
Hoffmann, A. O., & Plotkina, D. (2021). Positive framing when assessing the personal resources to manage one’s finances increases consumers’ retirement self‐efficacy and improves retirement goal clarity. Psychology & Marketing, 38, 22862304.Google Scholar
Hofmann, W., Baumeister, R. F., Förster, G., & Vohs, K. D. (2012a). Everyday temptations: An experience sampling study of desire, conflict, and self-control. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 102(6), 13181335.Google Scholar
Hofmann, W., Vohs, K. D., & Baumeister, R. F. (2012b). What people desire, feel conflicted about, and try to resist in everyday life. Psychological Science, 23(6), 582588.Google Scholar
Hollenbeck, J. R., & Klein, H. J. (1987). Goal commitment and the goal-setting process: Problems, prospects, and proposals for future research. Journal of Applied Psychology, 72(2), 212220.Google Scholar
Honicke, T., & Broadbent, J. (2016). The influence of academic self-efficacy on academic performance: A systematic review. Educational Research Review, 17(2), 6384.Google Scholar
Huang, S. C. (2018). Social information avoidance: When, why, and how it is costly in goal pursuit. Journal of Marketing Research, 55(3), 382395.Google Scholar
Huang, S. C., Broniarczyk, S. M., Zhang, Y., & Beruchashvili, M. (2015). From close to distant: The dynamics of interpersonal relationships in shared goal pursuit. Journal of Consumer Research, 41(5), 12521266.Google Scholar
Huang, S. C., Jin, L., & Zhang, Y. (2017). Step by step: Sub-goals as a source of motivation. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 141, 115.Google Scholar
Huang, S. C., Lin, S. C., & Zhang, Y. (2019). When individual goal pursuit turns competitive: How we sabotage and coast. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 117(3), 605620.Google Scholar
Hull, C. L. (1932). The goal-gradient hypothesis and maze learning. Psychological Review, 39(1), 2543.Google Scholar
Hull, C. L. (1943). Principles of Behavior: An Introduction to Behavior Theory. Appleton-Century.Google Scholar
Jin, L., Huang, S. C., & Zhang, Y. (2013). The unexpected positive impact of fixed structures on goal completion. Journal of Consumer Research, 40(4), 711725.Google Scholar
Jin, L., Xu, Q., & Zhang, Y. (2015). Climbing the wrong ladder: The mismatch between consumers’ preference for subgoal sequences and actual goal performance. Journal of Marketing Research, 52(5), 616628.Google Scholar
Karesh, M.A. (1955) The social scientific origins of symbolic consumer research: Social Research, Inc. In Rassuli, K. M., Hollander, S. C., & Nevett, T. R. (Eds.). Marketing History: Marketing’s Greatest Empirical Experiment: Proceedings of the 7th Conference on Historical Research in Marketing & Management Thought (pp. 95111). Michigan State University.Google Scholar
Keller, L., Kabengele, M. C., & Gollwitzer, P. M. (2021). The self-regulation of face touching-a preregistered experiment testing if-then plans as a means to promote COVID-19 prevention. Psychology & Health, 119.Google Scholar
Keller, P. A. (2006). Regulatory focus and efficacy of health messages. Journal of Consumer Research, 33(1), 109114.Google Scholar
Kernan, M. C., & Lord, R. G. (1990). Effects of valence, expectancies, and goal-performance discrepancies in single and multiple goal environments. Journal of Applied Psychology, 75(2), 194203.Google Scholar
Kerr, N. L. (1983). Motivation losses in small groups: A social dilemma analysis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 45(4), 819828.Google Scholar
Kerr, S., & Landauer, S. (2004). Using stretch goals to promote organizational effectiveness and personal growth: General Electric and Goldman Sachs. Academy of Management Perspectives, 18(4), 134138.Google Scholar
Khan, U., & Dhar, R. (2006). Licensing effect in consumer choice. Journal of Marketing Research, 43(2), 259266.Google Scholar
Kim, J. C., Wadhwa, M., & Chattopadhyay, A. (2019). When busy is less indulging: Impact of busy mindset on self-control behaviors. Journal of Consumer Research, 45(5), 933952.Google Scholar
Kim, Y. D., & Ha, Y. W. (2016). Who is afraid of disposition of financial assets? The moderating role of regulatory focus in the disposition effect. Marketing Letters, 27(1), 159169.Google Scholar
Kirschenbaum, D. S., Humphrey, L. L., & Malett, S. D. (1981). Specificity of planning in adult self-control: An applied investigation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 40(5), 941950.Google Scholar
Kivetz, R., Urminsky, O., & Zheng, Y. (2006). The goal-gradient hypothesis resurrected: Purchase acceleration, illusionary goal progress, and customer retention. Journal of Marketing Research, 43(1), 3958.Google Scholar
Kleiman, T., & Hassin, R. R. (2013). When conflicts are good: Nonconscious goal conflicts reduce confirmatory thinking. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 105(3), 374387.Google Scholar
Klein, H. J., Whitener, E. M., & Ilgen, D. R. (1990). The role of goal specificity in the goal-setting process. Motivation and Emotion, 14(3), 179193.Google Scholar
Köcher, S., & Wilcox, K. (2021). “I made it work”: How using a self‐assembled product increases task performance. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 5(1), 18.Google Scholar
Koo, M., & Fishbach, A. (2012). The small-area hypothesis: Effects of progress monitoring on goal adherence. Journal of Consumer Research, 39(3), 493509.Google Scholar
Koomen, R., Grueneisen, S., & Herrmann, E. (2020). Children delay gratification for cooperative ends. Psychological Science, 31(2), 139148.Google Scholar
Köpetz, C., Faber, T., Fishbach, A., & Kruglanski, A. W. (2011). The multifinality constraints effect: How goal multiplicity narrows the means set to a focal end. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 100(5), 810826.Google Scholar
Kristofferson, K., White, K., & Peloza, J. (2014). The nature of slacktivism: How the social observability of an initial act of token support affects subsequent prosocial action. Journal of Consumer Research, 40(6), 11491166.Google Scholar
Kruglanski, A. W. (1996). Goals as knowledge structures. In Gollwitzer, P. M., & Bargh, J. A. (Eds.). The Psychology of Action: Linking Cognition and Motivation to Behavior (pp. 599618). The Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Kruglanski, A. W., Fishbach, A., Woolley, K., et al. (2018). A structural model of intrinsic motivation: On the psychology of means-ends fusion. Psychological Review, 125(2), 165182.Google Scholar
Kruglanski, A. W., & Köpetz, C. (2010). Unpacking the self-control dilemma and its modes of resolution. In Hassin, R. R., Ochsner, K. N., & Trope, Y. (Eds.), Self Control in Society, Mind, and Brain (pp. 297311). Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Kruglanski, A. W., Shah, J. Y., Fishbach, A., Friedman, R., Chun, W. Y., & Sleeth-Keppler, D. (2002). A theory of goal systems. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 34(2), 331378.Google Scholar
Kruglanski, A. W., Thompson, E. P., Higgins, E. T., et al. (2000). To “do the right thing” or to “just do it”: Locomotion and assessment as distinct self-regulatory imperatives. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79(5), 793815.Google Scholar
Lamberton, C. (2020). Reflective self‐control in self‐control scholarship: A Peircean analysis. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 30(1), 201207.Google Scholar
Lane, J., Lane, A. M., & Kyprianou, A. (2004). Self-efficacy, self-esteem and their impact on academic performance. Social Behavior and Personality: An International Journal, 32(3), 247256.Google Scholar
Laran, J., & Janiszewski, C. (2011). Work or fun? How task construal and completion influence regulatory behavior. Journal of Consumer Research, 37(6), 967983.Google Scholar
Laran, J., Janiszewski, C., & Salerno, A. (2016). Exploring the differences between conscious and unconscious goal pursuit. Journal of Marketing Research, 53(3), 442458.Google Scholar
Laran, J., Janiszewski, C., & Salerno, A. (2019). Nonconscious nudges: Encouraging sustained goal pursuit. Journal of Consumer Research, 46(2), 307329.Google Scholar
Latané, B., Williams, K., & Harkins, S. (1979). Many hands make light the work: The causes and consequences of social loafing. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 37(6), 822832.Google Scholar
Laurin, K. (2016). Interpersonal influences on goals: Current and future directions for goal contagion research. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 10(11), 668678.Google Scholar
Lazarsfeld, P. F. (1935). The art of asking ‘why?’ in marketing research. National Marketing Review, 1(1), 3243.Google Scholar
Leahey, T. M., Kumar, R., Weinberg, B. M., & Wing, R. R. (2012). Teammates and social influence affect weight loss outcomes in a team‐based weight loss competition. Obesity, 20(7), 14131418.Google Scholar
Lee, A. Y., & Aaker, J. L. (2004). Bringing the frame into focus: The influence of regulatory fit on processing fluency and persuasion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 86(2), 205218.Google Scholar
LemayJr., E. P., Ryan, J. E., & Teneva, N. (2021). Pursuing interpersonal value: An interdependence perspective. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 120(3), 716744.Google Scholar
Lembregts, C., & Pena‐Marin, J. (2021). Numbers and units affect goal pursuit organization and motivation. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 31(1), 3754.Google Scholar
Lepper, M. R., Corpus, J. H., & Iyengar, S. S. (2005). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivational orientations in the classroom: Age differences and academic correlates. Journal of Educational Psychology, 97(2), 184196.Google Scholar
Lepper, M. R., & Greene, D. (1978). Overjustification research and beyond: Toward a means-ends analysis of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. In The Hidden Costs of Reward: New Perspectives on the Psychology of Human Motivation (pp. 109148). Psychology Press.Google Scholar
Lepper, M. R., Greene, D., & Nisbett, R. E. (1973). Undermining children’s intrinsic interest with extrinsic reward: A test of the “overjustification” hypothesis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 28(1), 129137.Google Scholar
Lewin, K. (1935). A Dynamic Theory of Personality. McGraw Hill.Google Scholar
Liberman, N., & Förster, J. (2008). Expectancy, value and psychological distance: A new look at goal gradients. Social Cognition, 26(5), 515533.Google Scholar
Locke, E. A., Chah, D. O., Harrison, S., & Lustgarten, N. (1989). Separating the effects of goal specificity from goal level. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 43(2), 270287.Google Scholar
Locke, E. A., & Latham, G. P. (1990). A Theory of Goal Setting & Task Performance. Prentice-Hall, Inc.Google Scholar
Locke, E. A., & Latham, G. P. (2006). New directions in goal-setting theory. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 15(5), 265268.Google Scholar
Locke, E. A., & Latham, G. P. (2013). Goal setting theory: The current state. In Locke, E. A., & Latham, G. P. (Eds.). New Developments in Goal Setting and Task Performance (pp. 623630). Routledge/Taylor & Francis Group.Google Scholar
Locke, E. A., & Latham, G. P. (2020). Building a theory by induction: The example of goal setting theory. Organizational Psychology Review, 10(3–4), 223239.Google Scholar
Locke, E. A., Shaw, K. N., Saari, L. M., & Latham, G. P. (1981). Goal setting and task performance: 1969–1980. Psychological Bulletin, 90(1), 125152.Google Scholar
LynchJr., J. G., Netemeyer, R. G., Spiller, S. A., & Zammit, A. (2010). A generalizable scale of propensity to plan: The long and the short of planning for time and for money. Journal of Consumer Research, 37(1), 108128.Google Scholar
Ma, F., Zeng, D., Xu, F., Compton, B. J., & Heyman, G. D. (2020). Delay of gratification as reputation management. Psychological Science, 31(9), 11741182.Google Scholar
Maehr, M. L. (1974). Culture and achievement motivation. American Psychologist, 29(12), 887896.Google Scholar
Markman, A. B., & Brendl, C. M. (2000). The influence of goals on value and choice. In Medin, D. L. (Ed.). The Psychology of Learning and Motivation: Advances in Research and Theory, Vol. 39 (pp. 97128). Academic Press.Google Scholar
Markus, H. R., & Kitayama, S. (1991). Culture and the self: Implications for cognition, emotion, and motivation. Psychological Review, 98(2), 224253.Google Scholar
Marsh, R. L., Hicks, J. L., & Bink, M. L. (1998). Activation of completed, uncompleted, and partially completed intentions. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 24(2), 350361.Google Scholar
Martin, A. J., Marsh, H. W., & Debus, R. L. (2003). Self-handicapping and defensive pessimism: A model of self-protection from a longitudinal perspective. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 28(1), 136.Google Scholar
Martin, L. L., & Tesser, A. (1989). Toward a motivational and structural theory of ruminative thought. In Uleman, J. S. & Bargh, J. A. (Eds.). Unintended Thought (pp. 306326). The Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Maslow, A. H. (1943). A theory of human motivation. Psychological Review, 50(4), 370396.Google Scholar
Mazar, N., Amir, O., & Ariely, D. (2008). The dishonesty of honest people: A theory of self-concept maintenance. Journal of Marketing Research, 45(6), 633644.Google Scholar
Mazar, N., Mochon, D., & Ariely, D. (2018). If you are going to pay within the next 24 hours, press 1: Automatic planning prompt reduces credit card delinquency. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 28(3), 466476.Google Scholar
McClelland, D. C. (1961). The Achieving Society. Van Nostrand.Google Scholar
Mehr, K. S., Geiser, A. E., Milkman, K. L., & Duckworth, A. L. (2020). Copy-paste prompts: A new nudge to promote goal achievement. Journal of the Association for Consumer Research, 5(3), 329334.Google Scholar
Micu, C. C., & Chowdhury, T. G. (2010). The effect of message’s regulatory focus and product type on persuasion. Journal of Marketing Theory and Practice, 18(2), 181190.Google Scholar
Miller, G. A., Galanter, E., & Pribram, K. H. (1960). The integration of plans. In Miller, G. A., Galanter, E., & Pribram, K. H. (Eds.). Plans and the Structure of Behavior (pp. 95102). Henry Holt and Co.Google Scholar
Mischel, W., & Ebbesen, E. B. (1970). Attention in delay of gratification. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 16(2), 329337.Google Scholar
Mischel, W., Ebbesen, E. B., & Raskoff Zeiss, A. (1972). Cognitive and attentional mechanisms in delay of gratification. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 21(2), 204218.Google Scholar
Mischel, W., Shoda, Y., & Rodriguez, M. I. (1989). Delay of gratification in children. Science, 244(4907), 933938.Google Scholar
Mishra, H., Mishra, A., & Nayakankuppam, D. (2010). How salary receipt affects consumers’ regulatory motivations and product preferences. Journal of Marketing, 74(5), 93103.Google Scholar
Mitchell, T. R. (1982). Motivation: New directions for theory, research, and practice. Academy of Management Review, 7(1), 8088.Google Scholar
Monin, B., & Miller, D. T. (2001). Moral credentials and the expression of prejudice. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81(1), 3343.Google Scholar
Moors, A., & De Houwer, J. (2001). Automatic appraisal of motivational valence: Motivational affective priming and Simon effects. Cognition and Emotion, 15(6), 749766.Google Scholar
Moors, A., De Houwer, J., & Eelen, P. (2004). Automatic stimulus‐goal comparisons: Support from motivational affective priming studies. Cognition and Emotion, 18(1), 2954.Google Scholar
Munichor, N., & Leboeuf, R. A. (2018). The influence of time-interval descriptions on goal-pursuit decisions. Journal of Marketing Research, 55(2), 291303.Google Scholar
Murray, H. A. (1938). Explorations in Personality: A Clinical and Experimental Study of Fifty Men of College Age. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Naylor, J. C., & Ilgen, D. R. (1984). Goal setting: A theoretical analysis of a motivational technology. Research in Organizational Behavior, 6, 95140.Google Scholar
Neely, J. H. (1977). Semantic priming and retrieval from lexical memory: Roles of inhibitionless spreading activation and limited-capacity attention. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 106(3), 226254.Google Scholar
Newell, A., & Simon, H. A. (1972). Human Problem Solving, Vol. 104, No. 9. Prentice-Hall.Google Scholar
Newman, J. W. (1955). Looking around. Harvard Business Review, 33(1), 135–44.Google Scholar
Niese, Z. A., Libby, L. K., & Pfent, A. M. (2021). When the going gets tough, the committed get going: Preexisting goal commitment determines the consequences of experiencing regulatory nonfit. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 121(3), 447473.Google Scholar
Nisbett, R. (1968). Determinants of food intake in obesity. Science, 159(3820), 12541255.Google Scholar
Nunes, J. C., & Drèze, X. (2006). The endowed progress effect: How artificial advancement increases effort. Journal of Consumer Research, 32(4), 504512.Google Scholar
Oettingen, G., Sevincer, A. T., & Gollwitzer, P. M. (2008). Goal pursuit in the context of culture. In Sorrentino, R., & Yamaguchi, S. (Eds.). The Handbook of Motivation and Cognition Across Cultures (pp. 191211). Elsevier/Academic Press.Google Scholar
Okada, E. M. (2019). Differential construal of exercise versus diet and implications for weight control. Journal of Consumer Research, 46(3), 528544.Google Scholar
Orehek, E., & Forest, A. L. (2016). When people serve as means to goals: Implications of a motivational account of close relationships. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 25(2), 7984.Google Scholar
Orehek, E., Forest, A. L., & Barbaro, N. (2018). A people-as-means approach to interpersonal relationships. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 13(3), 373389.Google Scholar
Oyserman, D. (2015). Pathways to Success through Identity Based Motivation. Oxford University Press.Google Scholar
Park, J., Lu, F. C., & Hedgcock, W. M. (2017). Relative effects of forward and backward planning on goal pursuit. Psychological Science, 28(11), 16201630.Google Scholar
Park, J. K., & John, D. R. (2014). I think I can, I think I can: Brand use, self-efficacy, and performance. Journal of Marketing Research, 51(2), 233247.Google Scholar
Peak, H. (1955). Attitude and motivation. In Jones, M. (Ed.). Nebraska Symposium on Motivation. University of Nebraska Press.Google Scholar
Pervin, L. A. (1989). Goal concepts: Themes, issues, and questions. In Pervin, L. A. (Ed.). Goal Concepts in Personality and Social Psychology (pp. 473479). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.Google Scholar
Pintrich, P. R., & de Groot, E. V. (1990). Motivational and self-regulated learning components of classroom academic performance. Journal of Educational Psychology, 82(1), 3340.Google Scholar
Powers, W. T. (1973). Behavior: The Control of Perception. Aldine.Google Scholar
Prelec, D., & Bodner, R. (2003). Self-signaling and self-control. In Loewenstein, G., Read, D., & Baumeister, R. (Eds.). Time and Decision: Economic and Psychological Perspectives on Intertemporal Choice (pp. 277298). Russell Sage Foundation.Google Scholar
Prestwich, A., Conner, M., Lawton, R., Bailey, W., Litman, J., & Molyneaux, V. (2005). Individual and collaborative implementation intentions and the promotion of breast self-examination. Psychology and Health, 20(6), 743760.Google Scholar
Raghubir, P., & Srivastava, J. (2009). The denomination effect. Journal of Consumer Research, 36(4), 701713.Google Scholar
Rawn, C. D., & Vohs, K. D. (2011). People use self-control to risk personal harm: An intra-interpersonal dilemma. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 15(3), 267289.Google Scholar
Rosenberg, M. J. (1956). Cognitive structure and attitudinal affect. The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 53(3), 367372.Google Scholar
Rotter, J. B. (1966). Generalized expectancies for internal versus external control of reinforcement. Psychological Monographs: General and Applied, 80(1), 128.Google Scholar
Rousseau, D. M. (1997). Organizational behavior in the new organizational era. Annual Review of Psychology, 48(1), 515546.Google Scholar
Rucker, D. D., & Galinsky, A. D. (2016). Growing beyond growth: Why multiple mindsets matter for consumer behavior. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 26(1), 161164.Google Scholar
Rumelhart, D. E., & Ortony, A. (1977). The representation of knowledge in memory. In Anderson, R. C., Spiro, R. J., & Montague, W. E. (Eds.). Schooling and the Acquisition of Knowledge (pp. 99135). ErlbaumGoogle Scholar
Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55(1), 6878.Google Scholar
Sachdeva, S., Iliev, R., & Medin, D. L. (2009). Sinning saints and saintly sinners: The paradox of moral self-regulation. Psychological Science, 20(4), 523528.Google Scholar
Salerno, A., Laran, J., & Janiszewski, C. (2019). The bad can be good: When benign and malicious envy motivate goal pursuit. Journal of Consumer Research, 46(2), 388405.Google Scholar
Sansone, C., & Morgan, C. (1992). Intrinsic motivation and education: Competence in context. Motivation and Emotion, 16(3), 249270.Google Scholar
Sansone, C., Weir, C., Harpster, L., & Morgan, C. (1992). Once a boring task always a boring task? Interest as a self-regulatory mechanism. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 63(3), 379390.Google Scholar
Savary, J., & Goldsmith, K. (2020). Unobserved altruism: How self-signaling motivations and social benefits shape willingness to donate. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 26(3), 538550.Google Scholar
Savary, J., Li, C. X., & Newman, G. E. (2020). Exalted purchases or tainted donations? Self‐signaling and the evaluation of charitable incentives. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 30(4), 671679.Google Scholar
Schweitzer, M. E., & Hsee, C. K. (2002). Stretching the truth: Elastic justification and motivated communication of uncertain information. Journal of Risk and Uncertainty, 25(2), 185201.Google Scholar
Sengupta, J., & Zhou, R. (2007). Understanding impulsive eaters’ choice behaviors: The motivational influences of regulatory focus. Journal of Marketing Research, 44(2), 297308.Google Scholar
Septianto, F., Seo, Y., Sung, B., & Zhao, F. (2020). Authenticity and exclusivity appeals in luxury advertising: the role of promotion and prevention pride. European Journal of Marketing, 56(6), 13051323.Google Scholar
Shaddy, F., & Lee, L. (2020). Price promotions cause impatience. Journal of Marketing Research, 57(1), 118133.Google Scholar
Shafir, E., Simonson, I., & Tversky, A. (1993). Reason-based choice. Cognition, 49(1–2), 1136.Google Scholar
Shah, J. (2003). Automatic for the people: How representations of significant others implicitly affect goal pursuit. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84(4), 661681.Google Scholar
Shah, J. Y., Friedman, R., & Kruglanski, A. W. (2002). Forgetting all else: On the antecedents and consequences of goal shielding. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83(6), 12611280.Google Scholar
Shah, J. Y., & Kruglanski, A. W. (2002). Priming against your will: How accessible alternatives affect goal pursuit. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 38(4), 368383.Google Scholar
Shah, J. Y., & Kruglanski, A. W. (2003). When opportunity knocks: Bottom-up priming of goals by means and its effects on self-regulation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84(6), 11091122.Google Scholar
Sharif, M. A., & Woolley, K. (2020). The effect of categorization on goal progress perceptions and motivation. Journal of Consumer Research, 47(4), 608630.Google Scholar
Shepperd, J. A. (1993). Productivity loss in performance groups: A motivation analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 113(1), 6781.Google Scholar
Sherif, M. (1958). Superordinate goals in the reduction of intergroup conflict. American Journal of Sociology, 63(4), 349356.Google Scholar
Slotter, E. B., & Gardner, W. L. (2011). Can you help me become the “me” I want to be? The role of goal pursuit in friendship formation. Self and Identity, 10(2), 231247.Google Scholar
Soman, D., & Cheema, A. (2004). When goals are counterproductive: The effects of violation of a behavioral goal on subsequent performance. Journal of Consumer Research, 31(1), 5262.Google Scholar
Soman, D., & Shi, M. (2003). Virtual progress: The effect of path characteristics on perceptions of progress and choice. Management Science, 49(9), 12291250.Google Scholar
Srull, T. K., & Wyer, R. S., Jr. (1986). The role of chronic and temporary goals in social information processing. In Sorrentino, R. M., & Higgins, E. T. (Eds.). Handbook of Motivation and Cognition: Foundations of Social Behavior (pp. 503549). Guilford Press.Google Scholar
Stajkovic, A. D., & Luthans, F. (1998). Self-efficacy and work-related performance: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 124(2), 240261.Google Scholar
Stavrova, O., Ren, D., & Pronk, T. (2021). Low self-control: A hidden cause of loneliness? Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 16.Google Scholar
Steele, C. M. (1988). The psychology of self-affirmation: Sustaining the integrity of the self. In Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, Vol. 21 (pp. 261302). Academic Press.Google Scholar
Strahilevitz, M., & Myers, J. G. (1998). Donations to charity as purchase incentives: How well they work may depend on what you are trying to sell. Journal of Consumer Research, 24(4), 434446.Google Scholar
Strecher, V. J., McEvoy DeVellis, B., Becker, M. H., & Rosenstock, I. M. (1986). The role of self-efficacy in achieving health behavior change. Health Education Quarterly, 13(1), 7392.Google Scholar
Stroebe, W., Mensink, W., Aarts, H., Schut, H., & Kruglanski, A. W. (2008). Why dieters fail: Testing the goal conflict model of eating. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 44(1), 2636.Google Scholar
Stroebe, W., van Koningsbruggen, G. M., Papies, E. K., & Aarts, H. (2013). Why most dieters fail but some succeed: A goal conflict model of eating behavior. Psychological Review, 120(1), 110138.Google Scholar
Suher, J., Huang, S. C., & Lee, L. (2019). Planning for multiple shopping goals in the marketplace. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 29(4), 642651.Google Scholar
Swait, J., Argo, J., & Li, L. (2018). Modeling simultaneous multiple goal pursuit and adaptation in consumer choice. Journal of Marketing Research, 55(3), 352367.Google Scholar
Tadajewski, M. (2006). Remembering motivation research: Toward an alternative genealogy of interpretive consumer research. Marketing Theory, 6(4), 429466.Google Scholar
Tangari, A. H., Bui, M., Haws, K. L., & Liu, P. J. (2019). That’s not so bad, I’ll eat more! Backfire effects of calories-per-serving information on snack consumption. Journal of Marketing, 83(1), 133150.Google Scholar
Taylor, S. E., & Gollwitzer, P. M. (1995). Effects of mindset on positive illusions. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69(2), 213226.Google Scholar
Tesser, A. (1988). Toward a self-evaluation maintenance model of social behavior. In Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, Vol. 21 (pp. 181227). Academic Press.Google Scholar
Thaler, R. H., & Shefrin, H. M. (1981). An economic theory of self-control. Journal of Political Economy, 89(2), 392406.Google Scholar
Tolman, E. C. (1932). Purposive Behavior in Animals and Men. University of California Press.Google Scholar
Touré-Tillery, M., & Fishbach, A. (2012). The end justifies the means, but only in the middle. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 141(3), 570583.Google Scholar
Touré-Tillery, M., & Fishbach, A. (2015). It was(n’t) me: Exercising restraint when choices appear self-diagnostic. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 109(6), 11171131.Google Scholar
Touré-Tillery, M., & Fishbach, A. (2017). Too far to help: The effect of perceived distance on the expected impact and likelihood of charitable action. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 112(6), 860876.Google Scholar
Touré‐Tillery, M., & Fishbach, A. (2018). Three sources of motivation. Consumer Psychology Review, 1(1), 123134.Google Scholar
Touré-Tillery, M., & Kouchaki, M. (2021). You will not remember this: How memory efficacy influences virtuous behavior. Journal of Consumer Research, 47(5), 737754.Google Scholar
Touré-Tillery, M., & Light, A. E. (2018). No self to spare: How the cognitive structure of the self influences moral behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 147, 4864.Google Scholar
Touré-Tillery, M., Steinmetz, J., & DiCosola, B. (2022). Feeling judged? How the presence of outgroup members promotes healthier food choices. Psychology & Marketing, 39(8), 15041510.Google Scholar
Touré-Tillery, M., & Wang, L. (2022). The good-on-paper effect: How the decision context influences prosociality. Marketing Science, online ahead of print. https://pubsonline.informs.org/doi/epdf/10.1287/mksc.2021.1347Google Scholar
Townsend, C., & Liu, W. (2012). Is planning good for you? The differential impact of planning on self-regulation. Journal of Consumer Research, 39(4), 688703.Google Scholar
Trope, Y., & Fishbach, A. (2000). Counteractive self-control in overcoming temptation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79(4), 493506.Google Scholar
Tuk, M. A., Prokopec, S., & Van den Bergh, B. (2021). Do versus don’t: The impact of framing on goal-level setting. Journal of Consumer Research, 47(6), 10031024.Google Scholar
Ülkümen, G., & Cheema, A. (2011). Framing goals to influence personal savings: The role of specificity and construal level. Journal of Marketing Research, 48(6), 958969.Google Scholar
Ülkümen, G., & Thomas, M. (2013). Personal relevance and mental simulation amplify the duration framing effect. Journal of Marketing Research, 50(2), 194206.Google Scholar
Vallacher, R. R., & Wegner, D. M. (1987). What do people think they’re doing? Action identification and human behavior. Psychological Review, 94(1), 315.Google Scholar
Van Osselaer, S. M., & Janiszewski, C. (2012). A goal-based model of product evaluation and choice. Journal of Consumer Research, 39(2), 260292.Google Scholar
Vargas-Tonsing, T. M. (2009). An exploratory examination of the effects of coaches’ pre-game speeches on athletes’ perceptions of self-efficacy and emotion. Journal of Sport Behavior, 32(1), 918933.Google Scholar
Vroom, V. H. (1964). Work and Motivation. Wiley.Google Scholar
Wallace, S. G., & Etkin, J. (2018). How goal specificity shapes motivation: A reference points perspective. Journal of Consumer Research, 44(5), 10331051.Google Scholar
Walton, G. M., Cohen, G. L., Cwir, D., & Spencer, S. J. (2012). Mere belonging: The power of social connections. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 102(3), 513532.Google Scholar
Wang, C., & Huang, Y. (2018). “I want to know the answer! Give me fish’n’chips!”: The impact of curiosity on indulgent choice. Journal of Consumer Research, 44(5), 10521067.Google Scholar
Weldon, E., Jehn, K. A., & Pradhan, P. (1991). Processes that mediate the relationship between a group goal and improved group performance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 61(4), 555569.Google Scholar
Werle, C. O., Wansink, B., & Payne, C. R. (2015). Is it fun or exercise? The framing of physical activity biases subsequent snacking. Marketing Letters, 26(4), 691702.Google Scholar
Wertenbroch, K. (1998). Consumption self-control by rationing purchase quantities of virtue and vice. Marketing Science, 17(4), 317337.Google Scholar
Wiener, N. (1948). Cybernetics: Or Control and Communication in the Animal and the Machine. MIT University Press.Google Scholar
Wiggin, K. L., Reimann, M., & Jain, S. P. (2019). Curiosity tempts indulgence. Journal of Consumer Research, 45(6), 11941212.Google Scholar
Wilcox, K., & Prokopec, S. (2019). Restraint that blinds: Attention narrowing and consumers’ response to numerosity in self-control decisions. Journal of Consumer Research, 46(2), 371387.Google Scholar
Woolley, K., & Fishbach, A. (2015). The experience matters more than you think: People value intrinsic incentives more inside than outside an activity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 109(6), 968982.Google Scholar
Woolley, K., & Fishbach, A. (2016). For the fun of it: Harnessing immediate rewards to increase persistence in long-term goals. Journal of Consumer Research, 42(6), 952966.Google Scholar
Woolley, K., & Fishbach, A. (2017). Immediate rewards predict adherence to long-term goals. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 43(2), 151162.Google Scholar
Woolley, K., & Fishbach, A. (2018). It’s about time: Earlier rewards increase intrinsic motivation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 114(6), 877890.Google Scholar
Wurtele, S. K. (1986). Self-efficacy and athletic performance: A review. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 4(3), 290301.Google Scholar
Xu, A. J., & WyerJr., R. S. (2007). The effect of mind-sets on consumer decision strategies. Journal of Consumer Research, 34(4), 556566.Google Scholar
Xu, A. J., & WyerJr., R. S. (2008). The comparative mind-set: From animal comparisons to increased purchase intentions. Psychological Science, 19(9), 859864.Google Scholar
Xu, X., & Chen, R. (2020). Time metaphor and regulatory focus. European Journal of Marketing, 54(8), 18651881.Google Scholar
Zeigarnik, B. (1927). On the retention of completed and uncompleted activities. Psychologische Forschung, 9, 185.Google Scholar
Zemack-Rugar, Y., Corus, C., & Brinberg, D. (2019). If at first you do succeed, do you try, try again? Developing the persistence–licensing response measure to understand, predict, and modify behavior following subgoal success. Journal of Marketing Research, 56(2), 324344.Google Scholar
Zhang, Y., Fishbach, A., & Kruglanski, A. W. (2007). The dilution model: How additional goals undermine the perceived instrumentality of a shared path. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 92(3), 389401.Google Scholar
Zhang, Y., & Gao, L. (2016). Wanting ever more: Acquisition procedure motivates continued reward acquisition. Journal of Consumer Research, 43(2), 230245.Google Scholar
Zhang, Y., & Huang, S. C. (2010). How endowed versus earned progress affects consumer goal commitment and motivation. Journal of Consumer Research, 37(4), 641654.Google Scholar
Zhang, Y., Huang, S. C., & Broniarczyk, S. M. (2010). Counteractive construal in consumer goal pursuit. Journal of Consumer Research, 37(1), 129142.Google Scholar
Zhu, M., Bagchi, R., & Hock, S. J. (2019). The mere deadline effect: Why more time might sabotage goal pursuit. Journal of Consumer Research, 45(5), 10681084.Google Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure no-reply@cambridge.org is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×