Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-cd9895bd7-hc48f Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-12-28T02:19:26.128Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

23 - A Survey Researcher’s Response to the Implicit Revolution: Listen to What People Say

from Section VI - Explicit Prejudice; Alive and Well?

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  21 December 2024

By
P. J. Henry
Edited by
Jon A. Krosnick ,
Tobias H. Stark  and
Amanda L. Scott
Jon A. Krosnick
Affiliation:
Stanford University, California
Tobias H. Stark
Affiliation:
Utrecht University, The Netherlands
Amanda L. Scott
Affiliation:
The Strategy Team, Columbus, Ohio
Get access

Summary

The implicit revolution seems to have arrived with the declaration that “explicit measures are informed by and (possibly) rendered invalid by unconscious cognition.” What is the view from survey research, which has relied on explicit methodology for over a century, and whose methods have extended to the political domain in ways that have changed the landscape of politics in the United States and beyond? One survey researcher weighs in. The overwhelming evidence points to the continuing power of explicit measures to predict voting and behavior. Whether implicit measures can do the same, especially beyond what explicit measures can do, is far more ambiguous. The analysis further raises doubts, as others before have done, as to what exactly implicit measures measure, and particularly questions the co-opting among implicit researchers the word “attitude” when such measures instead represent associations. The conclusion: Keep your torches at home. There is no revolution.

Keywords

implicit associationsimplicit prejudiceIATattitudesexplicit measuressymbolic racismgeneralizabilitysamplingculture of the lab
Type
Chapter
Information
The Cambridge Handbook of Implicit Bias and Racism , pp. 595 - 615
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2025

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

Adams, G., Edkins, V., Lacka, D., et al. (2008). Teaching about racism: Pernicious implications of the standard portrayal. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 30, 349–361.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Allport, G. (1954a). The Nature of Prejudice. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.Google Scholar
Allport, G. (1954b). The historical background of modern social psychology. In Lindsey, G. (Ed.), Handbook of Social Psychology. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, pp. 3–56.Google Scholar
Arendt, F., & Northup, T. (2015). Effects of long-term exposure to news stereotypes on implicit and explicit attitudes. International Journal of Communication, 9, 2370–2390.Google Scholar
Ashburn-Nardo, L., & Johnson, N. J. (2008). Implicit outgroup favoritism and intergroup judgment: The moderating role of stereotypic context. Social Justice Research, 21, 490–508.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Austen, I., & Bilefsky, D. (2019, September 19). Photo of Trudeau in brownface disrupts the Canadian election. The New York Times, p. A1.Google Scholar
Axt, J. R. (2017). The best way to measure explicit racial attitudes is to ask about them. Social and Personality Psychology Science, 9, 896–906.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Banaji, M. R. (2001). Implicit attitudes can be measured. In Roediger, H. L. III, Nairne, J. S., Neath, I. E., & Surprenant, A. M. (Eds.), The Nature of Remembering: Essays in Honor of Robert G. Crowder. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association, pp. 117–150.Google Scholar
Baron, A. S., & Banaji, M. R. (2006). The development of implicit attitudes: Evidence of race evaluations from ages 6 and 10 and adulthood. Psychological Science, 17, 53–58. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2005.01664.xCrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Berger, J., Meredith, M., & Wheeler, S. C. (2008). Contextual priming: Where people vote affects how they vote. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science, 105, 8846–8849. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0711988105CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Blanton, H., & Jaccard, J. (2006). Arbitrary metrics in psychology. American Psychologist, 61(1), 27–41. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.61.1.27CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Blanton, H., & Jaccard, J. (2008). Unconscious racism: A concept in pursuit of a measure. Annual Review of Sociology, 34, 277–297.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blanton, H., & Jaccard, J. (2017). You can’t assess the forest if you can’t assess the trees: Psychometric challenges to measuring implicit bias in crowds. Psychological Inquiry, 28, 249–257.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Blumenthal, J. A., & Turnipseed, T. L. (2011). Is voting in churches (or anywhere else) unconstitutional? The Polling Place Priming (PPP) effect. Boston University Law Review, 91, 561–600.Google Scholar
Bonilla-Silva, E. (2018). Racism without Racists. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.Google Scholar
Bonilla-Silva, E., & Forman, T. A. (2000). “I am not a racist but…”: Mapping White college students’ racial ideology in the USA. Discourse & Society, 11, 50–85. https://doi.org/10.1177/0957926500011001003CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Brandt, M. (2011). Sexism and gender inequality across 57 societies. Psychological Science, 22, 1413–1418.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Brendl, C. M., Markman, A. B., & Messner, C. (2001). How do indirect measures of evaluation work? Evaluating the inference of prejudice in the Implicit Association Test. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81, 760–773.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Carmichael, S., & Hamilton, C. (1967). Black Power: The Politics of Liberation in America. New York, NY: Vintage.Google Scholar
Charlesworth, T. E. S., & Banaji, M. R. (2019). Patterns of implicit and explicit attitudes: I. Long-term change and stability from 2007 to 2016. Psychological Science, 30, 174–192.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cohen, A. B. (2009). Many forms of culture. American Psychologist, 64, 194–204. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0015308CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cooley, E., Lei, R. F., & Ellerkamp, T. (2018). The mixed outcomes of taking ownership for implicit racial biases. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 44, 1424–1434.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Crosby, F., Bromley, S., & Saxe, L. (1980). Recent unobtrusive studies of Black and White discrimination and prejudice: A literature review. Psychological Bulletin, 87, 546–563. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.87.3.546CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cunningham, W. A., Preacher, K. J., & Banaji, M. R. (2001). Implicit attitude measures: Consistency, stability, and convergent validity. Psychological Science, 12, 163–170. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9280.00328CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dambrun, M., Desprès, G., & Guimond, S. (2003). On the multifaceted nature of prejudice: Psychophysiological responses to ingroup and outgroup ethnic stimuli. Current Research in Social Psychology, 8 (14). https://uiowa.edu/crisp/crisp/volume-8-issue-14-february-2-2003Google Scholar
Dasgupta, N. (2004). Implicit ingroup favoritism, outgroup favoritism, and their behavioral manifestations. Social Justice Research, 17, 143–169.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dasgupta, N., Greenwald, A. G. (2001). On the malleability of automatic attitudes: Combating automatic prejudice with images of admired and disliked individuals. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81, 800–814.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
de Waal, F. (2019). Mama’s Last Hug: Animal Emotions and What They Tell Us About Ourselves. New York, NY: W.W. Norton.Google Scholar
Devine, P. G. (1989). Stereotypes and prejudice: Their automatic and controlled components. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 56, 5–18. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.56.1.5CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Devine, P. G., Forscher, P. S., Austin, A. J., et al. (2012). Long-term reduction in implicit race bias: A prejudice habit-breaking intervention. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 48, 1267–1278.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Ditonto, T. M., Lau, R. R., & Sears, D. O. (2013). AMPing racial attitudes: Comparing the power of explicit and implicit racism measures in 2008. Political Psychology, 34, 487–510.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dovidio, J. F., & Gaertner, S. L. (1981). The effects of race, status, and ability on helping behavior. Social Psychology Quarterly, 44, 192–203.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dovidio, J. F., Kawakami, K., & Gaertner, S. L. (2002). Implicit and explicit prejudice and interracial interaction. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 82, 62–68.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Dovidio, J. F., Kawakami, K., Johnson, C., et al. (1997). On the nature of prejudice: Automatic and controlled processes. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 33, 510–540.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Duarte, J., Crawford, J., Stern, C., et al. (2015). Political diversity will improve social psychological science. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 38, E130. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0140525X14000430CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fazio, R. H., Jackson, J. R., Dunton, B. C., et al. (1995). Variability in automatic activation as an unobtrusive measure of racial attitudes: A bona fide pipeline? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69, 1013–1027.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fazio, R., & Olson, M. (2003). Implicit measures in social cognition research: Their meaning and use. Annual Review of Psychology, 54, 297–327.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Fazio, R., & Olson, M. (2014). The MODE model. In Sherman, J. W., Gawronski, B., & Trope, Y. (Eds.), Dual Process Theories of the Social Mind. New York, NY: Guilford Press, pp. 155–171.Google Scholar
Fiedler, K., & Bluemke, M. (2005). Faking the IAT: Aided and unaided response control on the Implicit Association Tests. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 27, 307–316. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15324834basp2704_3CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Fiedler, K., Messner, C, & Bluemke, M. (2006) Unresolved problems with the “I,” the “A,” and the “T”: A logical and psychometric critique of the Implicit Association Test (IAT). European Review of Social Psychology, 17, 74–147. https://doi.org/10.1080/10463280600681248CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Forscher, P. S., Lai, C. K., Axt, J. R., et al. (2019). A meta-analysis of procedures to change implicit measures. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 117, 522–559. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspa0000160CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Forscher, P. S., Mitamura, C., Dix, E. L., et al. (2017). Breaking the prejudice habit: Mechanisms, timecourse, and longevity. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 72, 133–146. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2017.04.009CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gaertner, S. L., & Dovidio, J. F. (1977). The subtlety of White racism, arousal, and helping behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 35, 691–707. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.35.10.691CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gaertner, S. L., & Dovidio, J. F. (1986). The aversive form of racism. In Dovidio, J. F. & Gaertner, S. L. (Eds.), Prejudice, Discrimination, and Racism. San Diego, CA: Academic Press.Google Scholar
Gawronski, B. (2019). Six lessons for a cogent science of implicit bias and its criticism. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 14(4), 574–595. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691619826015CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Gawronski, B., & Bodenhausen, G. V. (2011). The associative-propositional evaluation model: Theory, evidence, and open questions. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 44, 59–127.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gay, P. (2006). Freud: A Life for Our Time. New York, NY: W. W. Norton.Google Scholar
Gintis, H., Bowles, S., Boyd, R., et al. (2005). Moral sentiments and material interests: Origins, evidence, and consequences. In Gintis, H., Bowles, S., Boyd, R., & Fehr, E. (Eds.), Moral Sentiments and Material Interests: The Foundations of Cooperation in Economic Life. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, pp. 3–40.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gonsalkorale, K., Allen, T. J., Sherman, J. W., et al. (2010). Mechanisms of group membership and exemplar exposure effects on implicit attitudes. Social Psychology, 41, 158–168. https://doi.org/10.1027/1864-9335/a000023CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Gramsci, A. (1971). Selections from the Prison Notebooks. (Hoare, Q. & Smith, G. N., Eds., Trans.). New York, NY: International Publishers.Google Scholar
Greenwald, A. G., & Banaji, M. R. (2017). The implicit revolution: Reconceiving the relation between conscious and unconscious. American Psychologist, 72, 861–871. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000238CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Harris, A. (2019, April 19). The disciplines where no black people earn Ph.Ds. The Atlantic. Available at:www.theatlantic.com/education/archive/2019/04/lack-of-black-doctoral-students/587413/Google Scholar
Hehman, E., Calanchini, J., Flake, J. K., et al. (2019). Establishing construct validity evidence for regional measures of explicit and implicit racial bias. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 148, 1022–1040.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Henrich, J., Heine, S. J., & Norenzayan, A. (2010). Most people are not WEIRD. Nature, 466, 29.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Henry, P. J. (2008a). College sophomores in the laboratory redux: Influences of a narrow data base on social psychology’s view of the nature of prejudice. Psychological Inquiry, 19, 49–71. https://doi.org/10.1080/10478400802049936CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Henry, P. J. (2008b). Student sampling as a theoretical problem. Psychological Inquiry, 19, 114–126. https://doi.org/10.1080/10478400802049951CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Henry, P. J. (2010). Institutional bias. In Dovidio, J. F., Hewstone, M., Glick, P., & Esses, V. M. (Eds.), Handbook of Prejudice, Stereotyping, and Discrimination. London: SAGE Publications, pp. 426–440.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Henry, P. J., & Hardin, C. D. (2006). The contact hypothesis revisited: Status bias in the reduction of implicit prejudice in the United States and Lebanon. Psychological Science, 17, 862–868.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Henry, P. J., & Sears, D. O. (2002). The symbolic racism 2000 scale. Political Psychology, 23, 253–283.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Henry, P. J., & Wetherell, G. (2017). Countries with greater gender equality have more positive attitudes and laws concerning lesbians and gay men. Sex Roles, 77, 523–532.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Henry, P. J., Wetherell, G., & Brandt, M. J. (2015). Democracy as a legitimizing ideology. Peace and Conflict: Journal of Peace Psychology, 21, 648–664.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Herek, G. (2016). The social psychology of sexual prejudice. In Nelson, T. D. (Ed.), The Handbook of Prejudice, Stereotyping, and Discrimination. New York, NY: Psychology Press, pp. 355–384.Google Scholar
Hu, X., Antony, J. W., Creery, J. D., et al. (2015). Unlearning implicit social biases during sleep. Science, 348, 1013–1015. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aaa3841CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Jones, J. (1997). Prejudice and Racism. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.Google Scholar
Jost, J., & Hunyady, O. (2003). The psychology of system justification and the palliative function of ideology. European Review of Social Psychology, 13, 111–153. https://doi.org/10.1080/10463280240000046CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jost, J. T., & Major, B. (Eds.). (2001). The Psychology of Legitimacy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Karpinski, A., & Hilton, J. L. (2001). Attitudes and the Implicit Association Test. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81, 774–788.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Katz, D. (1960). The functional approach to the study of attitudes. Public Opinion Quarterly, 24, 163–204. https://doi.org/10.1086/266945CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kawakami, K., Dovidio, J. F., Moll, J., et al. (2000). Just say no (to stereotyping): Effects of training in the negation of stereotypic associations on stereotype activation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 78, 871–888.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kinder, D. R., & Sears, D. O. (1981). Prejudice and politics: Symbolic racism versus racial threats to the good life. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 40, 414–431. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.40.3.414CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kite, M. E., & Whitley, B. E. (2016). Psychology of Prejudice and Discrimination (3rd ed.). London: Routledge.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kluegel, J. R., & Smith, E. R. (1986). Beliefs About Inequality: Americans’ Views of What Is and What Ought to Be. Hawthorne, NY: Aldine de Gruyter.Google Scholar
Knowles, E. D., Lowery, B. S., Hogan, C. M., et al. (2009). On the malleability of ideology: Motivated construals of color blindness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 96(4), 857–869. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0013595CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Knowles, E. D., & Tropp, L. (2019, Oct. 18). The “paranoid style” in American race relations: White Americans increasingly believe that minorities are colluding against them. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Society for Experimental Social Psychology (SESP), Toronto.Google Scholar
Krosnick, J. A. (2010). A New Look at Racism in America: Evidence from National Surveys. Invited Presentation at the Political Psychology Pre-Conference, Society for Personality and Social Psychology Annual Conference, Las Vegas, Nevada.Google Scholar
Kteily, N., Bruneau, E., Waytz, A., et al. (2015). The ascent of man: Theoretical and empirical evidence for blatant dehumanization. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 109, 901–931. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/pspp0000048CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kubota, J. T., Li, J., Bar-David, E., et al. (2013). The price of racial bias: Intergroup negotiations in the ultimatum game. Psychological Science, 24, 2498–2504. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797613496435CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Kuklinski, J., Sniderman, P., Knight, K., et al. (1997). Racial prejudice and attitudes toward affirmative action. American Journal of Political Science, 41, 402–419. https://doi.org/10.2307/2111770CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lai, C. K., Skinner, A. L., Cooley, E., et al. (2016). Reducing implicit racial preferences: II. Intervention effectiveness across time. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 145, 1001–1016. https://doi.org/10.1037/xge0000179CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
LaPiere, R. T. (1934). Attitudes vs. actions. Social Forces, 13, 230–237.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lee, K. M., Lindquist, K. A., & Payne, B. K. (2017). Constructing bias: Conceptualization breaks the link between implicit bias and fear of black Americans. Emotion, 18, 855–871.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Lepore, L., & Brown, R. (1997). Category and stereotype activation: Is prejudice inevitable? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72, 275–287. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.72.2.275CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Light, R. J. (2001). Making the Most of College. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Livingston, R. W., & Drwecki, B. B. (2007). Why are some individuals not racially biased? Susceptibility to affective conditioning predicts nonprejudice toward blacks. Psychological Science, 18, 816–823. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2007.01985.xCrossRefGoogle Scholar
Marx, K., & Engels, F. (1998). The German Ideology [Die deutsche Ideologie]. Amherst, NY: Prometheus Books. Original work produced in 1846.Google Scholar
McConahay, J. (1986). Modern racism, ambivalence, and the Modern Racism Scale. In Dovidio, J. F. & Gaertner, S. L. (Eds.), Prejudice, Discrimination, and Racism. San Diego, CA: Academic Press.Google Scholar
McConahay, J. B., Hardee, B. B., & Batts, V. (1981). Has racism declined in America? It depends on who is asking and what is asked. Journal of Conflict Resolution, 25, 563–579. https://doi.org/10.1177/002200278102500401CrossRefGoogle Scholar
McConnell, A. R., & Leibold, J. M. (2001). Relations among the Implicit Associations Test, discriminatory behavior, and explicit measures of racial attitudes. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 37, 435–442.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Mercier, H., & Sperber, D. (2017). The Enigma of Reason: A New Theory of Human Understanding. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Google Scholar
Mitchell, G. (2012). Revisiting truth or triviality: The external validity of research in the psychological laboratory. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 7, 109–117. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691611432343CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Mitchell, G., & Tetlock, P. E. (2017). Popularity as a poor proxy for utility: The case of implicit prejudice. In Lilienfeld, S. O. & Waldman, I. D. (Eds.), Psychological Science Under Scrutiny: Recent Challenges and Proposed Solutions. West Sussex: Wiley-Blackwell.Google Scholar
Moberg, S. P., Krysan, M., & Christianson, D. (2019). Racial attitudes in America. Public Opinion Quarterly, 83, 450–471.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Monin, B., & Miller, D. T. (2001). Moral credentials and the expression of prejudice. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81, 33–43. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.81.1.33CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Morris, K. A., & Ashburn-Nardo, L. (2010). The Implicit Association Test as a class assignment: Student affective and attitudinal reactions. Teaching of Psychology, 37, 63–68.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nisbett, R. E., & Wilson, T. D. (1977). Telling more than we can know: Verbal reports on mental processes. Psychological Review, 84, 231–259. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.84.3.231CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nosek, B. A., & Hansen, J. J. (2008). The associations in our heads belong to us: Searching for attitudes and knowledge in implicit evaluation. Cognition & Emotion, 22, 553–594. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699930701438186CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Obaidi, M., Kunst, J. R., Kteily, N., et al. (2018). Living under threat: Mutual threat perception drives anti-Muslim and anti-Western hostility in the age of terrorism. European Journal of Social Psychology, 48, 567–584.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Olson, M. A., & Fazio, R. H. (2006). Reducing automatically activated racial prejudice through implicit evaluative conditioning. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 32, 421–433.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Oswald, F. L., Mitchell, G., Blanton, H., et al. (2013). Predicting ethnic and racial discrimination: A meta-analysis of IAT criterion studies. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 105, 171–192. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0032734CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Parker, K., Morin, R., & Pumphrey, J. (2019). Looking to the future, public sees an America in decline on many fronts. Pew Research Center.Google Scholar
Pasek, J., Tahk, A., Lelkes, Y., et al. (2009). Determinants of turnout and candidate choice in the 2008 US presidential election: Illuminating the impact of racial prejudice and other considerations. Public Opinion Quarterly, 73, 943–994,CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Payne, B. K., Krosnick, J. A., Pasek, J., et al. (2010). Implicit and explicit prejudice in the 2008 American presidential election. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 46, 367–374. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2009.11.001.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Payne, B. K., Vuletich, H. A., & Lundberg, K. B. (2017). The bias of crowds: How implicit bias bridges personal and systemic prejudice. Psychological Inquiry, 28, 233–238.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Penner, L. A., Dovidio, J. F., Gonzalez, R., et al. (2016). The effects of oncologist implicit racial bias in racially discordant oncology interactions. Journal of Clinical Oncology, 34, 2874–2880.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Pratto, F., Sidanius, J., & Levin, S. (2006). Social dominance theory and the dynamics of intergroup relations: Taking stock and looking forward. European Review of Social Psychology, 17, 271–320. https://doi.org/10.1080/10463280601055772CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Prentice, D. (2012). Liberal norms and their discontents. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 7, 516–518.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Rae, J. R., Newheiser, A-K., & Olson, K. R. (2015). Exposure to racial out-groups and implicit race bias in the United States. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 6, 535–543. https://doi.org/10.1177/1948550614567357CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Reyna, C., Henry, P. J., Korfmacher, W., et al. (2006). Examining the principles in principled conservatism: The role of responsibility stereotypes as cues for deservingness in racial policy decisions. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 90, 109–128.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Richeson, J. A., & Shelton, N. (2005). Brief report: Thin slices of racial bias. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior, 29, 75–86.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Rutland, A., Cameron, L., Milne, A., et al. (2005). Social norms and self-presentation: Children’s implicit and explicit intergroup attitudes. Child Development, 76, 451–466. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2005.00856CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sears, D. O. (1986). College sophomores in the laboratory: Influences of a narrow data base on social psychology’s view of human nature. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 515–530. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.51.3.515CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sears, D. O. (2004). A perspective on implicit prejudice from survey research. Psychological Inquiry, 15, 293–297.Google Scholar
Sears, D. O., & Kinder, D. R. (1971). Racial tensions and voting in Los Angeles. In Hirsch, W. Z. (Ed.), Los Angeles: Viability and Prospects for Metropolitan Leadership. New York, NY: Praeger.Google Scholar
Sears, D. O, & Henry, P. J. (2005). Over thirty years later: A contemporary look at symbolic racism and its critics. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 37, 95–150.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sidanius, J., & Pratto, F. (1999). Social Dominance. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sigall, H., & Page, R. (1971). Current stereotypes: A little fading, a little faking. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 18, 247–255. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0030839CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sinclair, S., Lowery, B. S., Hardin, C. D., et al. (2005). Social tuning of automatic racial attitudes: The role of affiliative motivation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 89, 583–592. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.89.4.583CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Son Hing, L. S., Chung-Yan, G. A., Hamilton, L. K., et al. (2008). A two-dimensional model that employs explicit and implicit attitudes to characterize prejudice. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 94, 971–987. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.94.6.971CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Stark, T. H., van Maaren, F. M., Krosnick, J. A., et al. (2022). The impact of social desirability pressures on whites’ endorsement of racial stereotypes: A comparison between oral and ACASI reports in a national survey. Sociological Methods & Research, 51, 605–631.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sue, D. W., Capodilupo, C. M., Torino, G. C., et al. (2007). Racial microaggressions in everyday life: Implications for clinical practice. American Psychologist, 62, 271–86. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066x.62.4.271CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tessler, M., & Sears, D. O. (2010). Obama’s Race: The 2008 Election and the Dream of a Post-Racial America. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Trawalter, S., Bart-Plange, D. J., & Hoffman, K. M. (2020). A socioecological psychology of racism: Making structures and history more visible. Current Opinion in Psychology, 32, 47–51.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Uhlmann, E. L., Brescoll, V. L., & Paluck, E. L. (2006). Are members of low status groups perceived as bad, or badly off? Egalitarian negative associations and automatic prejudice. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 42, 491–499. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2004.10.003CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Uhlmann, E. L., & Nosek, B. (2012). My culture made me do it: Lay theories of responsibility for automatic prejudice. Social Psychology, 43, 108–113. https://doi.org/10.1027/1864-9335/a000089.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Unzueta, M. M., Knowles, E. D., & Ho, G. (2012). Diversity is what you want it to be: How social dominance motives affect diversity construals. Psychological Science, 23, 303–309.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vanman, E. J., Paul, B. Y., Ito, T. A., et al. (1997). The modern face of prejudice and structural features that moderate the effect of cooperation on affect. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73, 941–959. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.73.5.941CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Velasco González, K., Verkuyten, M., Weesie, J., et al. (2008). Prejudice towards Muslims in The Netherlands: Testing integrated threat theory. British Journal of Social Psychology, 47, 667–685. https://doi.org/10.1348/014466608X284443CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wallaert, M., Ward, A., & Mann, T. (2010). Explicit control of implicit responses: Simple directives can alter IAT performance. Social Psychology, 41,152–157. https://doi.org/10.1027/1864-9335/a000022CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Wicker, A. W. (1969). Attitudes versus actions: The relationship of verbal and overt behavioral responses to attitude objects. Journal of Social Issues, 25, 41–78.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Woodmansee, J. J., & Cook, S. W. (1967). Dimensions of verbal racial attitudes: Their identification and measurement. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 7, 240–250. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0025078CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Yogeeswaran, K., & Dasgupta, N. (2010). Will the “real” American please stand up? The effect of implicit national prototypes on discriminatory behavior and judgments. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 36, 1332–1345. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167210380928CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Zick, A., Küpper, B., & Hövermann, A. (2011). Intolerance, Prejudice and Discrimination: A European Report. Berlin: Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung.Google Scholar

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure no-reply@cambridge.org is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×