Antarctic Climate and Ecosystems Cooperative Research Centre. (2008). Position Analysis: CO2 and Climate Change: Ocean Impacts and Adaptation Issues. Hobart: Antarctic Climate and Ecosystems Cooperative Research Centre.Google Scholar

Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting. (1995). Decision 1 (1995). Measures, Decisions and Resolutions.Google Scholar

Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting. (2007). Final Report of the Thirtieth Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting. New Delhi, India, April 30–May 11, 2007. Secretariat of the Antarctic Treaty: Buenos Aires. Available at http://ats.aq/devAS/ats_meetings.aspx?lang=eGoogle Scholar

Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting. (2008). Final Report of the Thirty-First Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting. Kyiv, Ukraine, June 2–13, 2008. Secretariat of the Antarctic Treaty: Buenos Aires. Available at http://ats.aq/devAS/ats_meetings.aspx?lang=eGoogle Scholar

Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting. (2009). Final Report of the Thirty-Second Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting. Baltimore, United States, April 6–17, 2009. Secretariat of the Antarctic Treaty: Buenos Aires. Available at http://ats.aq/devAS/ats_meetings.aspx?lang=eGoogle Scholar

Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting. (2009). Decision 1 (2009). Meeting of Experts on Climate Change.Google Scholar

Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting. (2010). Final Report of the Thirty-Third Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting. Punte del Este Uruguary. Secretariat of the Antarctic Treaty: Buenos Aires. Available at http://ats.aq/devAS/ats_meetings.aspx?lang=eGoogle Scholar

Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting XXXV/Committee for Environmental Protection XV. (2012). ATCM Interests in International Climate Change Discussions – Options for Enhanced Engagement. WP032. Available at http://ats.aq/devAS/ats_meetings_doc_database.aspx?lang=e&menu=2Google Scholar

Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting. (2012). Final Report of the Thirty-Fifth Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting. Hobart, June 11–20, 2012. Secretariat of the Antarctic Treaty: Buenos Aires. Available at http://ats.aq/devAS/ats_meetings.aspx?lang=eGoogle Scholar

Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting. (2015). Final Report of the Thirty-Eighth Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting. Sofia, Bulgaria, June 1–20, 2015. Secretariat of the Antarctic Treaty: Buenos Aires. Available at http://ats.aq/devAS/ats_meetings.aspx?lang=eGoogle Scholar

Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting. (2016). Final Report of the Thirty-Ninth Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting. Santiago, Chile, May 23–June 1, 2016. Secretariat of the Antarctic Treaty: Buenos Aires. Available at http://ats.aq/devAS/ats_meetings.aspx?lang=eGoogle Scholar

Baird, R. (2004). Can Australia assert an Extended Continental Shelf off the Australian Antarctic Territory consistent with the Law of the Sea and within the Constraints of the Antarctic Treaty? Maritime Studies, 13, 1–19.Google Scholar

Chown, S. L., Lee, J. E., Hughes, K. A., et al. (2012). Challenges to the future conservation of the Antarctic. Science, 337(6091), 158–9.Google Scholar

Comba, D. (2013). An analysis of the impact of climate change for management and governance of the Antarctic region. In Leal Filho, W., ed., Climate Change and Disaster Risk Management. Berlin: Springer, pp. 311–19.Google Scholar

Constable, A. J., Melbourne-Thomas, J., Corney, S. P., et al. (2014). Climate change and Southern Ocean ecosystems I: How changes in physical habitats directly affect marine biota. Global Change Biology, 20(10), 3004–25.Google Scholar

Dudeney, J. R., and Walton, D.W.H. (2012). Leadership in politics and science within the Antarctic Treaty. Polar Research, 31(1), 11075. doi: 10.3402/polar.v31i0.11075.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Gleckler, P. J., Durack, P. J. Stouffer, R. J. Johnson, G. C., and Forest, C.E. (2016). Industrial-era global ocean heat uptake doubles in recent decades. Nature Climate Change, 6(4), 394–8. doi: 10.1038/nclimate2915.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Hall, R. (2007). Saving seabirds. In Kriwoken, L., Jabour, J., and Hemmings, A., eds., Looking South: Australia’s Antarctic Agenda. Sydney: The Federation Press, pp. 117–32.Google Scholar

Hall, R., and Haward, M. (2001). Enhancing compliance with international legislation and agreements mitigating seabird mortality on longlines. Marine Ornithology, 28(1), 183–90.Google Scholar

Haward, M. (2008). Governance and Management of the Southern Ocean: Approaching Assessments of Regime Effectiveness. Paper presented at ISA Conference, San Francisco, March 26–30, 2008.Google Scholar

Haward, M. (2009). The Law of the Sea Convention and the Antarctic Treaty System: Constraints or complementarity. In Hong, S.-Y. and van Dyke, J., eds., Maritime Boundary Disputes, Settlement Processes, and the Law of the Sea. Leiden: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, pp. 231–51.Google Scholar

Haward, M. (2014). The Southern Ocean, climate change and ocean governance. In Schofield, C., Lee, S., and Kwon, M.-S., eds., The Limits of Maritime Jurisdiction. Leiden: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, pp. 507–23.Google Scholar

Haward, M. (2017a). The originals: The role and influence of the original signatories to the Antarctic Treaty. In Hemmings, A., Dodds, K., and Roberts, P. eds., Handbook on the Politics of Antarctica. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar United Kingdom, pp. 232–40.Google Scholar

Haward, M. (2017b). Contemporary challenges to the Antarctic Treaty and Antarctic Treaty System: Australian interests, interplay and the evolution of a regime complex. Australian Journal of Maritime & Ocean Affairs, 9(1), 21–4.Google Scholar

Haward, M., and Griffiths., T. (2011). Australia and the Antarctic Treaty System: Fifty Years of Influence. Sydney: UNSW Press.Google Scholar

Haward, M., and Jabour, J. (2014). Environmental change and governance challenges in the Southern Ocean. In Stephens, T. and VanderZwaag, D., eds., Polar Oceans Governance in an Era of Environmental Change. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar, pp. 21–41.Google Scholar

Haward, M., Jabour, J., and Press, A. J. (2012). Antarctic Treaty System ready for a challenge. Science, 338(6107), 603.Google Scholar

Herr, R. A., and Hall, H. R. (1989). Science as currency and the currency of science. In Handmer, J., ed., Antarctica: Policies and Policy Development. Canberra: Centre for Resources and Environmental Studies, ANU, pp. 13–23.Google Scholar

Hobday, A. J., and Pecl, G. T. (2014). Identification of global marine hotspots: Sentinels for change and vanguards for adaptation action. Reviews in Fish Biology and Fisheries, 24(2), 415–25.Google Scholar

Jabour, J. (2009). The Australian Continental Shelf: Has Australia’s high latitude diplomacy paid off? Marine Policy, 33(2), 429–31.Google Scholar

Kock, K.-H., ed. (2000). Understanding CCAMLR’s Approach to Management. Hobart: CCAMLR.Google Scholar

Masson-Delmotte, V. (2006). Climate change – An Antarctic Perspective. SCAR Lecture ATCM XXIX.Google Scholar

Mosely, J. G. (2007). Antarctica: Securing Its Heritage for the Whole World. Canterbury, NSW: Envirobook.Google Scholar

Orheim, O., Press, A., and Gilbert, N. (2011). Managing the Antarctic environment: The evolving role of the committee for environmental protection. In Berkman, P. A., Lang, M. A., Walton, D. W. H., and Young, O. R., eds., Science Diplomacy: Antarctica, Science and the Governance of International Spaces. Washington DC: Smithsonian Institution Scholarly Press, pp. 209–22.Google Scholar

Press, A. J. (2012). An own goal in political ice hockey? World Heritage listing for Antarctica could reopen minerals debate. The Conversation, June 16. Available at https://theconversation.com/an-own-goal-in-political-ice-hockey-world-heritage-listing-for-antarctica-could-reopen-minerals-debate-7683Google Scholar

Rapley, C. (2007). Climate change and the Antarctic: What’s next? SCAR Lecture ATCM XXX.Google Scholar

Raustiala, K., and Victor, D. (2004). The regime complex for plant genetic resources. International Organization, 58(2), 277–310.Google Scholar

Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research. (2017). What does the United Nations Paris Climate Agreement mean for Antarctica? ATCM XL BP20.Google Scholar

Stokke, O. S., and Vidas, D. (1996). Governing the Antarctic: The Effectiveness and Legitimacy of the Antarctic Treaty System. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

UNESCO. (2016). World Heritage in the High Seas: An Idea Whose Time Has Come. World Heritage Reports 44, Paris, UNESCO.Google Scholar

Vizzini, S., Martinez-Crego, B., Andolina, C., et al. (2017). Ocean acidification as a driver of community simplification via the collapse of higher order and rise of lower order consumers. Nature Scientific Reports, 7, 4018. doi: 10.1038/s41598-017-03802-w.Google Scholar

Voosen, P. (2017). Delaware sized iceberg splits from Antarctica. Science, July 12. Available at www.sciencemag.org/news/2017/07/delaware-sized-iceberg-splits-antarcticaGoogle Scholar

World Meteorological Organization. (2015). The Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting (ATCM). World Meteorological Organization Executive Council Panel of Experts on Polar and High Mountain Observations, Research and Services. Sixth Session Reykjavik, September 8–11, 2015.Google Scholar

Young, O. R. (2010). Institutional Dynamics: Emergent Patterns in International Environmental Governance. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Google Scholar

Young, O. R. (2014). Building an international regime complex for the Arctic: Current status and next steps. The Polar Journal, 2(2), 391–407.Google Scholar

Abbott, K. W., Keohane, R. O., Moravcsik, A., Slaughter, A., and Snidal, D. (2000). The concept of legalization. International Organization, 54(3), 401–19.Google Scholar

AMAP. (2010). Assessment 2007: Oil and Gas Activities in the Arctic – Effects and Potential Effects, vol. II, Oslo: Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Programme (AMAP).Google Scholar

Andresen, S., Rosendal, K., and Skjærseth, J. B. (2013). Why negotiate a legally binding mercury convention? International Environmental Agreements: Politics, Law and Economics, 13(4), 425–40.Google Scholar

Arctic Council. (2009a). Arctic Marine Shipping Assessment 2009 Report, Arctic Council Working Group on the Protection of the Marine Environment (PAME).Google Scholar

Arctic Council. (2009b). Arctic Offshore Oil and Gas Guidelines 2009, Arctic Council Working Group on the Protection of the Marine Environment (PAME).Google Scholar

Bambulyak, A., Golubeva, S., Sydnes, M., et al. (2015). Resource management regimes in the Barents Sea. In Bourmistrov, A., Mellemvik, F., Bambulyak, A., et al., eds., International Arctic Petroleum Cooperation: Barents Sea Scenarios. London: Routledge, pp. 53–76.Google Scholar

Bernauer, T., Kalbhenn, A., Koubi, V., and Spilker, G. (2013). Is there a “Depth versus Participation” dilemma in international cooperation? The Review of International Organizations, 8(4), 477–97.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Borgerson, S. G. (2008). Arctic meltdown: The economic and security implications of global warming. Foreign Affairs, 87(2), 63–77.Google Scholar

Böhmelt, T., and Pilster, U. H. (2010). International environmental regimes: Legalisation, flexibility and effectiveness. Australian Journal of Political Science, 45(2), 245–60.Google Scholar

Braithwaite, J., and Drahos, P. (2000). Global Business Regulation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Breitmeier, H., Levy, M. A., Young, O. R., and Zürn, M. (1996). International Regimes Database (IRD) Data Protocol. Available at www.fernuni-hagen.de/polis/download/lg2/projekte/protocoll_regime_database.pdf (last accessed December 12 2016).Google Scholar

Breitmeier, H., Young, O. R., and Zürn, M. (2006). International Regimes Database. Available at www.fernuni-hagen.de/polis/lg2/projekte/InternationalRegimesDatabase.shtml (last accessed August 6, 2017).Google Scholar

DeSombre, E. R. (2006). Flagging Standards: Globalization and Environmental, Safety, and Labor Regulations at Sea. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Google Scholar

DNV. (2014). Specially Designated Marine Areas in the Arctic High Seas, report no. 2013–1442, revision 2, Oslo: Det Norske Veritas.Google Scholar

Downs, G. W., Rocke, D. M., and Barsoom, P. N. (1996). Is the good news about compliance good news about cooperation? International Organization, 50(3), 379–406.Google Scholar

Falkner, R. (2008). Business Power and Conflict in International Environmental Politics, Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.Google Scholar

Garner, R. (2017). Sea Ice Extent Sinks to Record Lows at Both Poles. Available at www.nasa.gov/feature/goddard/2017/sea-ice-extent-sinks-to-record-lows-at-both-poles.Google Scholar

Goertz, G. (2006). Social Science Concepts: A User’s Guide. Princeton: Princeton University Press.Google Scholar

Guzman, A. T. (2010). How International Law Works: A Rational Choice Theory. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Google Scholar

Harsem, Ø., Eide, A., and Heen, K. (2011). Factors influencing future oil and gas prospects in the Arctic. Energy Policy, 39(12), 8037–45.Google Scholar

Humrich, C. (2013). Fragmented international governance of Arctic offshore oil: Governance challenges and institutional improvement. Global Environmental Politics, 13(3), 79–99.Google Scholar

IFC. (2015). Environmental, Health, and Safety Guidelines for Offshore Oil and Gas Development, International Finance Corporation, World Bank Group.Google Scholar

IMO. (2015). International Code for Ships Operating in Polar Waters, International Maritime Organization, Marine Environmental Protection Committee, MEPC 68/21/Add.1, Annex10.Google Scholar

Jensen, Ø. (2016). The international code for ships operating in polar waters: Finalization, adoption and law of the sea implications. Arctic Review, 7(1), 60–82.Google Scholar

Koivurova, T. (2018). Framing the problem in Arctic offshore hydrocarbon exploitation. In Pelaudeix, C. and Basse, E. M., eds., Governance of Arctic Offshore Oil and Gas. London: Routledge, pp. 19–30.Google Scholar

Koivurova, T., and Molenaar, E. J. (2009). International Governance and Regulation of the Marine Arctic, Oslo: WWF International Arctic Programme.Google Scholar

Koremenos, B., Lipson, C., and Snidal, D. (2001). The rational design of international institutions. International Organization, 55(4), 761–99.Google Scholar

Leeuwen, J. (2010). Who Greens the Waves? Changing Authority in the Environmental Governance of Shipping and Offshore Oil and Gas Production. Wageningen: Wageningen Academic Publishers.Google Scholar

Lyons, Y. (2015). Regulation of offshore hydrocarbon exploration and exploitation under international law. In Warner, R. and Kaye, S., eds., Routledge Handbook of Maritime Regulation and Enforcement. London: Routledge, pp. 193–211.Google Scholar

McDorman, T. L. (2014). Canada, the United States and international law of the sea in the Arctic Ocean. In Stephens, T. and VanderZwaag, D. L., eds., Polar Oceans Governance in an Era of Environmental Change. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar, pp. 253–68.Google Scholar

Mitchell, R. B. (1994). Regime design matters: Intentional oil pollution and treaty compliance. International Organization, 48(3), 425–58.Google Scholar

Mitchell, R. B. (2017). International Environmental Agreements Database Project, version 2017.1. Available at http://iea.uoregon.edu/ (last accessed August 6, 2017).Google Scholar

Hansen, C. Ø., Grønsedt, P., Graversen, C. L., and Hendriksen, C. (2016). Arctic Shipping – Commercial Opportunities and Challenges. Frederiksberg: CBS Maritime.Google Scholar

OSPAR. (2010). Quality Status Report 2010. London: OSPAR Commission.Google Scholar

OSPAR. (2016). Impacts of Certain Pressures of the Offshore Oil and Gas Industry on the Marine Environment – Stocktaking Report. London: OSPAR Commission.Google Scholar

OSPAR. (2017). Trends in discharges, spills and emissions from offshore oil and gas installations. OSPAR Intermediate Assessment 2017. Available at https://oap.ospar.org/en/ospar-assessments/intermediate-assessment-2017/ (last accessed September 15, 2017).Google Scholar

PAME (2017). Regional Waste Management Strategies for Arctic Shipping: Regional Reception Facilities Plan (RRFP) and Proposal for IMO Consideration. Akureyri: Arctic Council Working Group on the Protection of the Marine Environment (PAME).Google Scholar

Raustiala, K. (2005). Form and substance in international agreements. The American Journal of International Law, 99(3), 581–614.Google Scholar

Rayfuse, R. (2014). Coastal state jurisdiction and the Polar Code: A test case for Arctic Ocean governance? In Stephens, T. and VanderZwaag, D. L., eds., Polar Oceans Governance in an Era of Environmental Change. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar, pp. 235–52.Google Scholar

Reiss, A. J. (1984). Consequences of compliance and deterrence models of law enforcement for the exercise of police discretion. Law and Contemporary Problems, 47(4), 83–122.Google Scholar

Skjærseth, J. B., Stokke, O. S., and Wettestad, J. (2006). Soft law, hard law, and effective implementation of international environmental norms. Global Environmental Politics, 6(3), 104–20.Google Scholar

Soltvedt, I. F. (2017). Soft law, solid implementation? The influence of precision, monitoring and stakeholder involvement on Norwegian implementation of Arctic Council recommendations. Arctic Review, 8, 73–94.Google Scholar

Stokke, O. S. (2013). Regime interplay in Arctic shipping governance: Explaining regional niche selection. International Environmental Agreements: Politics, Law and Economics, 13(1), 65–85.Google Scholar

Tan, A. K. (2005). Vessel-Source Marine Pollution: The Law and Politics of International Regulation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

US EPA. (2011). Oily Bilgewater Separators, Report EPA 800-R-11-007. Washington, DC: United States Environmental Protection Agency.Google Scholar

Young, O. R. (2009). Whither the Arctic? Conflict or cooperation in the circumpolar north. Polar Record, 45(1), 73–82.Google Scholar

Young, O. R. (2011). If an Arctic Ocean treaty is not the solution, what is the alternative? Polar Record, 47(4): 327–34.Google Scholar

Aakre, S., Kallbekken, S., Van Dingenen, R., and Victor, D. G. (2017). Incentives for small clubs of Arctic countries to limit black carbon and methane emissions. Nature Climate Change, 8(1), 85–89.Google Scholar

Air Transport Action Group. (2015). Aviation Climate Solutions. Geneva: Air Transport Action Group.Google Scholar

Andreae, M. O. and Gelencser, A. (2006). Black carbon or brown carbon? The nature of light-absorbing carbonaceous aerosols. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, 6(10), 3131–48.Google Scholar

Arctic Council. (2009). Arctic Marine Shipping Assessment. Tromsoe, Norway: Arctic Council [blog post].Google Scholar

Arctic Council. (2011a). The Arctic Environment and Climate Change. Tromsoe, Norway: Arctic Council [blog post].Google Scholar

Arctic Council. (2011b). An Assessment of Emissions and Mitigation Options for Black Carbon for the Arctic Council. Tromsoe, Norway: Arctic Council [blog post].Google Scholar

Arctic Council. (2011c). Task Force on Short-Lived Climate Forcers: Progress Report and Recommendations for Ministers. Tromsoe, Norway: Arctic Council [blog post].Google Scholar

Arctic Council. (2012). 2012 Arctic Report Cards Describe Dramatic Changes in the Arctic. Arctic Council, December 5 [blog post].Google Scholar

Arctic Council. (2013). Task Force on Black Carbon and Methane, 2nd meeting, Stockholm, December 11–13 [blog post].Google Scholar

Arctic Council. (2014). Addressing Black Carbon and Methane in the Arctic. Tromsoe, Norway: Arctic Council [blog post].Google Scholar

Arctic Council. (2015). Enhanced Black Carbon and Methane Emissions Reductions: An Arctic Council Framework for Action. Tromsoe, Norway: Arctic Council [blog post].Google Scholar

Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Programme of the Arctic Council (AMAP). (2011). The Impact of BC on Arctic Climate. Oslo: AMAP.Google Scholar

Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Programme of the Arctic Council (AMAP). (2015). AMAP Assessment 2015: BC and Ozone as Arctic Climate Forcers. Oslo, Norway: AMAP.Google Scholar

Asariotis, R. and Benamara, H. eds. (2012) Marine Transport and the Climate Challenge. London and New York: Routledge and Earthscan.Google Scholar

Azzara, A. (2013). Arctic Sea Shipping: Emissions Matter More Than You Might Think, From the ICCT Blogs, 2013. Washington, DC: International Council on Clean Transportation.Google Scholar

Azzara, A. (2015). BC Emissions from Shipping: Fact-Checking Conventional Wisdom. From the Blogs. Washington, DC: International Council on Clean Transportation.Google Scholar

Azzara, A. and Rutherford, D. (2009). Marine BC Emissions: Identifying Research Gaps. Washington, DC: International Council on Clean Transportation.Google Scholar

Azzara, A., Minjares, R., and Rutherford, D. (2015). Needs and Opportunities to Reduce BC Emissions from Maritime Shipping. Washington, DC: International Council on Clean Transportation.Google Scholar

Azzara, A. and Rutherford, D. (2015). Air Pollution from Marine Vessels in the U.S. High Arctic in 2025. Washington, DC: International Council on Clean Transportation.Google Scholar

Bond, T. C., Doherty, S. J., Fahey, D. W., et al. (2013). Bounding the role of BC in the climate system: A scientific assessment. Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres, 118(11), 5380–552.Google Scholar

Bows-Larkin, A. (2015). All adrift: Aviation, shipping, and climate change policy. Climate Policy, 15(6), 681–702.Google Scholar

Brasseur, G. P., Gupta, M., Anderson, B. E., et al. (2016). Impact of aviation on climate, Bulletin of the American Meterological Society, 97(4), 561–83.Google Scholar

Brewer, T. L. (2015a). Arctic Black Carbon from Shipping: A Club Approach to Climate-and-Trade Governance. Geneva: ICTSD.Google Scholar

Brewer, T. L. (2015b). Arctic black carbon: The challenge for international governance, BioRes, 9(5), 16–9.Google Scholar

Brewer, T. L. (2016a). Arctic warming: Context and issues for an Arctic Black Carbon (ABC) agreement, ICTSD Dialogue Process – Background Paper Update.Google Scholar

Brewer, T. L. (2016b). Black Carbon Problems in Transportation: Technological Solutions and Governmental Policy Solutions. Working Paper. MIT Center for Energy and Environmental Policy Research. Cambridge, MA: MIT.Google Scholar

Brewer, T. L., Derwent, H., and Blachowicz, A. (2016). Carbon market clubs and the new Paris regime. Discussion Paper for the World Bank Group’s Networked Carbon Markets Initiative.Google Scholar

Clean Air Task Force. (2014). The Last Climate Frontier: Leveraging the Arctic Council to Make Progress on Black Carbon and Methane. Boston, MA: Clean Air Task Force.Google Scholar

Clean Arctic Alliance. (2017). Overview. Available at www.hfofreearctic.org.Google Scholar

Climate and Clean Air Coalition (CCAC). (2014). Health: Urban Health Initiative. Paris: CCAC.Google Scholar

Climate and Clean Air Coalition (CCAC). (2015). Diesel Factsheet. Paris: CCAC.Google Scholar

Climate and Clean Air Coalition (CCAC). (2016a). Ports and Marine Factsheet. Paris: CCAC.Google Scholar

Climate and Clean Air Coalition (CCAC). (2016b). Reducing BC from Ports. Paris: CCAC.Google Scholar

Climate and Clean Air Coalition (CCAC). (2016c). Reducing BC Emissions from Heavy-Duty Diesel Vehicles and Engines: Results to Date and Strategy for Continued Success. Paris: CCAC.Google Scholar

Comer, B., Olmer, N., Mao, X., Roy, B., and Rutherford, D. (2017). Prevalence of Heavy Fuel Oil and BC in Arctic Shipping, 2015–2025. Washington, DC: ICCT.Google Scholar

Corbett, J., Lack, D., and Winebrake, J. (2010). Arctic shipping emissions inventories and future scenarios. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, 10(19), 9689–704.Google Scholar

Corbett, J. J. and Winebrake, J. (2008). The Impacts of Globalization on International Maritime Transport Activity: Past Trends and Future Perspectives. Paris: OECD.Google Scholar

Corbett, J. J., Winebrake, J. J., Green, E. H., et al. (2007). Mortality from ship emissions: A global assessment. Environmental Science & Technology, 41(24), 8512–18.Google Scholar

Cornes, R. and Sandler, T. (1996). The Theory of Externalities, Public Goods, and Club Goods. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

DeSombre, E. R. (2008). Globalisation, competition, and convergence: Shipping and the race to the middle. Global Governance, 14(2), 179–98.Google Scholar

European Environmental Agency (EEA). (2013). Status of BC monitoring in ambient air in Europe. EEA Technical Report No. 18/2013.Google Scholar

Falkner, R. (2015). A Minilateral Solution for Global Climate Change? On Bargaining Efficiency, Club Benefits and International Legitimacy. Centre for Climate Change Economics and Policy Working Paper No. 222; Grantham Research Institute on Climate Change and the Environment Working Paper No. 197.Google Scholar

Fuglestvedt, J. S., Shine, K. P., Berntsen, T., et al. (2010). Transport impacts on atmosphere and climate: Metrics, Atmospheric Environment, 44(37), 4648–77.Google Scholar

Goldberg, E. D. (1985). Black Carbon in the Environment: Properties and Distribution. New York: J. Wiley & Sons.Google Scholar

Hansen, J. and Nazarenko, L. (2004). Soot climate forcing via snow and ice albedos. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 101(2), 423–28.Google Scholar

Hegg, D. A., Warren, S. G., Grenfell, T. C., et al. (2009). Source attribution of BC in Arctic snow. Environmental Science & Technology, 43(11), 4016–21.Google Scholar

Hughes, E. (2013). A new chapter for MARPOL Annex VI – requirements for technical and operational measures to improve the energy efficiency of international shipping, Marine Environment Division, IMO.Google Scholar

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). (2013). The Physical Science Basis. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). (2014a). Climate Change 2014: Mitigation of Climate Change. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). (2014b). Climate Change 2014: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO). (2016). Long-Term Traffic Forecasts. Montreal: ICAO.Google Scholar

International Council on Clean Transportation (ICCT). (2011b). Reducing Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Ships: Cost Effectiveness of Available Options. Washington, DC: ICCT.Google Scholar

International Council on Clean Transport (ICCT). (2015). A 10-year projection of maritime activity in the U.S. Arctic region, report prepared for the U.S. Committee on the Maritime Transportation System, January 1.Google Scholar

International Maritime Organization (IMO). (2017). International Maritime Organization moves ahead with oceans and climate change agenda, press briefing 17, July 11.Google Scholar

Keohane, R. O. and Victor, D. G. (2011). The regime complex for climate change, Perspectives on Politics, 9(1), 7–23.Google Scholar

Masiello, C. A. (2004). New directions in black carbon organic geochemistry, Marine Chemistry, 92(1), 201–13.Google Scholar

Rutherford, D. (2016). Brother, Can You Spare Three Cents (for the Climate)? Washington, DC: ICCT.Google Scholar

RTCC (Responding to Climate Change). (2013). Norwegians issue shipping warming as Arctic sea lanes open. Available at www.rtcc.org.Google Scholar

Sandler, T. (1997). Global Challenges: An Approach to Environmental, Political, and Economic Problems. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar

Sims, R., Gorsevski, V., and Anenberg, S. (2015). BC Mitigation and the Role of the Global Environment Facility: A STAP Advisory Document. Washington, DC: Global Environment Facility.Google Scholar

Stettler, M.E.J., Eastham, S., and Barrett, S.R.H. (2011). Air quality and public health impacts of UK airports. Part I: Emissions. Atmospheric Environment, 45(31), 5415–24.Google Scholar

Stettler, M.E.J, Eastham, S., and Barrett, S.R.H. (2013). Air quality and public health impacts of UK airports. Part II: Impacts and policy assessment. Atmospheric Environment, 67, 184–92.Google Scholar

Stettler, M. E., Boies, A. M., Petzold, A., and Barrett, S. R. (2013). Global civil aviation BC emissions, Environmental Science & Technology, 47(18), 10397–404.Google Scholar

Stuards, M. (2016). Artic shipping passage ‘still decades away,’ The Guardian, February 10.Google Scholar

UN Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE). (1979). 1979 Convention on Long-range Transboundary Air Pollution. Geneva: UNECE.Google Scholar

UN Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE). (1999). The 1999 Gothenburg Protocol to Abate Acidification, Eutrophication and Ground-level Ozone. Geneva: UNECE.Google Scholar

UN Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE). (2013). 1999 Protocol to Abate Acidification, Eutrophication and Ground-level Ozone to the Convention on Long-range Transboundary Air Pollution, as Amended on 4 May 2012. Geneva: UNECE.Google Scholar

UN Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE). (2015). Protocol to Abate Acidification, Eutrophication and Ground-level Ozone. Geneva: UNECE.Google Scholar

US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). (2012). Report to Congress on BC. Washington, DC: US EPA.Google Scholar

US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). (2015). Ocean Vessels and Large Ships, 2015. Washington, DC: US EPA.Google Scholar

US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) (2016). Methane and Black Carbon Impacts on the Arctic: Communicating the Science. Washington, DC: US EPA.Google Scholar

US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) (2017). Mitigating BC. Washington, DC: US EPA.Google Scholar

US National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine, Committee on Propulsion and Energy Systems to Reduce Commercial Aviation Carbon Emissions. (2015). Commercial Aircraft Propulsion and Energy Systems Research: Reducing Global Carbon Emissions. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.Google Scholar

US National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). (2017). End-of-Summer Artic Sea Ice Extent Is Eighth Lowest on Record. Washington, DC: NASA.Google Scholar

US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). (2017). Arctic Report Card. Washington, DC: NOAA.Google Scholar

US National Snow and Ice Data Center (NSIDC). (2017). Arctic Sea Ice News and Analysis. Boulder, CO: NSIDC.Google Scholar

US White House (2013). National Strategy for the Arctic Region. Available at www.whitehouse.gov. [N.B. This document was produced by the Obama administration before the Trump administration entered office in January 2017.]Google Scholar

Victor, D. G. (2015a). The Case for Climate Clubs. E15 Initiative. Geneva: International Centre for Trade and Sustainable Development (ICTSD) and World Economic Forum.Google Scholar

Victor, D. G. (2015b). Join the club: Group approaches to tackling climate change. BioRes, 9, 18–19.Google Scholar

Victor, D. (2017). Three-Dimensional Climate Clubs: Implications for Climate Cooperation and the G20. Geneva: International Centre for Trade and Sustainable Development (ICTSD).Google Scholar

Weischer, L., Morgan, J., and Patel, M. (2012). Climate clubs: Can small groups of countries make a big difference in addressing climate change? Review of European Community & International Environmental Law, 21(3), 177–92.Google Scholar

Yeo, S. (2015). How successfully can the Arctic Council tackle climate change? The Carbon Brief, blog, April 28.Google Scholar