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Index

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  06 May 2022

Giovanni De Gregorio
Giovanni De Gregorio
Affiliation:
University of Oxford

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Chapter
Information
Digital Constitutionalism in Europe
Reframing Rights and Powers in the Algorithmic Society
 , pp. 355 - 366
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2022
Creative Commons
Creative Common License - CCCreative Common License - BYCreative Common License - NCCreative Common License - ND
This content is Open Access and distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution licence CC-BY-NC-ND 4.0 https://creativecommons.org/cclicenses/

Index

Footnotes are indicated by n. after the page number.

abuse of rights principle of Charter, 93, 147, 207
Ackerman, Bruce, 9
active intermediaries, platforms as, 35, 87–88, 124–125, 131–132, 153–154
data controllers. See data controllers, platforms as
Digital Services Act proposals based on, 212–214
ECJ rulings on, 56–57, 130
platforms’ denial of agency, 181
advertising by platforms, 15–16, 39, 53, See also digital capitalism
content moderation, business logic of, 167, 173, 176–181
Digital Services Act provisions on, 154–155
micro-targeting, 131, 173, 179–180, 217
search engines, promotional activities, 56–57
algorithms
decision-making by. See automated decision-making
diversity regulation by, 208–209
spurious neutrality of, 3, 56–57, 119, 185, 229–230, 259–260
Amazon, 7, 8, 294
anonymity in digital environments, 14–15
anonymisation of personal data, 237–239
pseudonymisation of personal data, 239–240, 246
Apple, 7, 8, 292
Arab Spring uprisings, 13
Arendt, Hannah, 175
Arora, Payal, 303
artificial intelligence, 3, 271, 274–275, 277–278
algorithms. See algorithms
for content moderation. See content moderation by platforms
for data processing, 16, 36, 236–237
for decision-making. See automated decision-making
discriminatory outcomes, 260–261, 278
EU regulation of, 283
competitive disadvantage concern, 281–282, 285
ethical guidelines, 32, 279–, 282
regulatory proposals, 211, 274, 280, 283–284, 295, 310, 316
Audiovisual Media Services (AVMS) Directive amendments, 66, 69–71, 144, 149, 189–190
Australian news ban by Facebook, 9, 158
authoritarian regimes
Internet regulation in China, 12, 85, 87, 89, 289–290, 297
platforms’ user governance, resemblance to, 20, 35, 112–116, 185
regulation of platforms in, 87, 88–89, 95, 121, 171, 284, 298
fear of pluralism basis, 89–92, 94, 111
automated decision-making, 18, 119, 247
constitutional law concerns, 119–120, 229, 230–231, 233
for content moderation, 19, 53–54, 72, 158, 174, 181–182, 185–186, 214
human intervention, 182, 184, 185, 211, 215, 252
discriminatory outcomes, 260–261, 278
GDPR rights to protection from, 31, 76–77, 246–253, 259, 261–262, 266, 268–270
human-in-the-loop principle, 211, 261, 268–270
privacy concerns, 216–217, 229, 230
user benefits, 167–168
welfare and criminal justice contexts, 98–99
autonomous powers of platforms, 81–82, 110–112, 121, 313–314
exercised under terms of service, 17, 116–118, 119
users rendered status subjectionis, 20, 35, 112–116, 210–211, 214, 317
freedom to conduct business right, 20–21, 58, 91, 153, 207
regulation to take account of, 76–77, 92–93, 200, 210–211
and horizontal effect doctrine, 200
quasi-judicial powers, 118–119
self-regulation. See self-regulation by platforms
AVMS (Audiovisual Media Services) Directive amendments, 66, 69–71, 144, 149, 189–190
balancing of rights. See proportionality principle
Balkin, Jack M., 1, 183, 195
Barker, Adam, 227
Barlow, John P., 42
Bathaee, Yavar, 252
Beijer, Malu, 198
Benkler, Yochai, 169
Ben-Shahar, Omri, 113
Berman, Paul S., 26–27
Biden, Joe, 189
Big Data analytics, 225–228, 236–237, 241, 245
constitutional law concerns, 229–233
European regulatory responses, 228–229, 233
GDPR. See GDPR (General Data Protection Regulation)
personal and non-personal data confusion, 236–240, 255
biometric data, 258–259
blocking orders, 58–59, 98, 190–192
Bognetti, Giovanni, 165
Boyd, Danah, 227
Boyle, James, 26–27, 96, 101
Brandeis, Louis D., 100, 219–220
Brkan, Maja, 197
Burris, Scott, 86–87
Bygrave, Lee A., 245, 248–249
Cambridge Analytica scandal, 2, 16, 40, 217
Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union (Nice Charter)
abuse of rights principle, 93, 147, 207
as bill of rights, 34, 53, 54–55, 60, 312
ECJ application of, 55–56
to e-Commerce Directive framework, 57–59
privacy and data protection rulings, 60–64
freedom to conduct business right. See freedom to conduct business
freedom to receive or impart information right. See freedom of expression
horizontal effect, 196–198
human dignity value, 22–23, 257
limitations to rights, requirements for, 93
non-discrimination right, 260–261
personal data protection right, 61, 224, 240
right to effective remedy, 205
China. See also authoritarian regimes
artificial intelligence, technological leadership, 274, 282
government control of platforms, 91, 284, 298
Internet regulation, 12, 85, 87, 89, 289–290, 297
Christou, George, 44
Citron, Danielle Keats, 178
cloud computing services for public authorities, 18–19, 99
Cohen, Julie E., 16
‘collateral censorship’ risk, 207–208
Communication Decency Act (US), 45–46, 102, 162–163, 189, 212, 288
community guidelines of platforms. See terms of service of platforms
complaints mechanism of Copyright (DSM) Directive, 69
consent to data processing principle, 50, 154, 240, 251, 252, 259, 267
artificial intelligence technology undermining, 242–243
as ‘informational self-determination’ right, 221, 258
constitutional law, 3–4, 5–6, 94, See also democratic values; fundamental rights; rule of law
delegated powers of platforms, constitutional law limits on, 100–101
digital constitutionalism
concept, 4–6, 26–27
European form. See European digital constitutionalism
globalisation’s challenge to, 10–11, 32–33, 83–84, 88, 311
platforms shaping, 8–10
proportionality principle. See proportionality principle
technological regulation distinguished, 18, 84–85, 117–118
transnational constitutionalism. See transnational constitutionalism
constitutionalisation of global private spheres, 9–11, 88, 89, 111, 194
content and data relationship. See data and content relationship
content moderation by platforms, 131, 313
automated decision-making for, 19, 53–54, 72, 158, 174, 181–182, 185–186, 214
human intervention, 182, 184, 185, 211, 215, 252
business logic of, 167, 173, 176–181
disinformation control. See disinformation
and European digital constitutionalism, 67, 73–74, 144n., 189–190, 192, 200–201, 215
copyright content, licensing system, 67–69, 73
Digital Services Act. See Digital Services Act proposal
‘equivalent’ content removal, ECJ guidance, 190–192
media pluralism reframing under, 201–203, 208–209
platform self-regulation, Commission Recommendation on, 72–73
positive and passive framework proposal, 207–211, 212–214, 315
terrorist content measures, 71–72, 149–150
video-sharing platforms, liability rules, 69–71, 81
freedom of expression concerns, 14, 36, 47–48, 59, 102–105, 116, 157–160, 214
horizontal effect doctrine, potential to address, 192–201
for media pluralism. See media pluralism
positive and passive framework to address, 207–211, 212–214, 315
positive state obligations to address, 203–207
private enforcement of right, 184–186
profit-making goal overriding, 166–168, 184
US and European attitudes compared, 160–166, 185, 189, 194–196, 214
general monitoring ban, 46–47, 57–58, 68, 143, 149, 190–192
rationale for, 207–208, 210
hate speech control, 19, 104, 177, 179, 185
EU measures on, 69–70, 129, 190
micro-targeting, 131, 173, 179–180, 217
notice and takedown mechanisms, 46, 103–104, 118–119, 142–143, 213
rule of law concerns, 14, 59, 77, 186
techniques, 176–177
voluntary standards, 187–189, 210, 212
Convention 108/1981 (Council of Europe), 49, 223
Copyright (DSM) Directive, 66, 67–69, 73, 144, 149, 189
Copyright (Infosoc) Directive, 129–130
co-regulation, public and private actors, 290–296, 316
Council of Europe, 66, 209, 286, 293
on algorithmic systems accountability, 280, 285–286, 295–296
Convention 108/1981, 49, 223
ECHR. See European Convention on Human Rights 1950
Court of Justice of the European Union, 55–56
COVID-19 pandemic, 113, 157, 300
disinformation during, 182
platform activities during, 6–7, 81, 292
Crawford, Kate, 184, 227
Crawford, Susan, 293–294
cyberspace, theories of governance in, 26, 42, 84–88
Czerniawski, Michal, 303
Daskal, Jennifer C., 110, 302–303
data and content relationship, 35–36, 123–125, 231, 314
and European digital constitutionalism, 145, 155–156
constitutional conflict promoting convergence, 145–148
GDPR promoting convergence, 150–155
parallel tracks approach retained, 143–145
procedural safeguards focus promoting convergence, 148–150
separate EU law regimes, 123–124, 125–128
Google Spain (ECJ) illustrating convergence, 138–143, 154, 155
Google v Vivi Down (Italy) illustrating convergence, 135–138, 154, 155
overlaps between, 128–131
technological convergence, 124–125, 131–135
data controllers, platforms as, 62–63, 131, 133–135
accountability regime of GDPR, 74–75, 106–108, 116, 152–153, 242, 246, 263–267, 300
Google Spain (ECJ) on, 63, 138–143, 154, 155
Google v Vivi Down (Italy), 135–138, 154, 155
data processing by platforms, 15–17, 36
artificial intelligence for, 16, 36, 236–237
decision-making purposes. See automated decision-making
autonomous decision-making on, 118–119
Big Data analytics. See Big Data analytics
data controller status. See data controllers, platforms as
‘data power’ of platforms, 28, 39, 52, 110–111, 114, 167
delisting duty. See right to be forgotten/to erasure
ECJ rulings on, 60–64, 129–130, 138–143, 253–254
for profiling purposes, 15–16, 39, 54, 131, 167
privacy concerns, 14–15, 216–217, 229, 230
and risk-based approach of data protection regulation, 105–110, 116, 263–266
for security and law enforcement purposes, 43–44, 61–62, 97, 144–145, 183, 235
sensitive personal data, 243
Data Protection Directive, 41, 52, 54, 56, 74, 267
data and content relationship under. See data and content relationship, separate EU law regimes
EU-US data transfer safe harbour, 61–62, 301–303
and freedom of expression, 146–147
internal market logic of, 38, 41–42, 49–51, 60, 127, 223–224
right to be forgotten. See right to be forgotten/to erasure
risk-based approach, 105–106, 127–128, 263
safe harbour for online intermediaries, 129, 133–135
data protection regulation, 33, 271–272, See also privacy in digital environments
Big Data analytics, European responses, 228–229
competing regimes, 32–33, 51–52
consent principle. See consent to data processing principle
Convention 108/1981 (Council of Europe), 49, 223
Data Protection Directive. See Data Protection Directive
for democratic values protection, 232–233
and EU internal market goals, 38, 41–42, 49–51, 60, 127, 223–224
EU-US data transfer safe harbour, 61–62, 301–303
evolution, 126, 219–225
freedom of expression, relationship with, 145–148
GDPR. See GDPR (General Data Protection Regulation)
human dignity value underpinning, 220, 221, 222, 232, 279
GDPR, proposed human centric approach, 255–262
positive dimension, 126–127, 218, 224
proportionality principle, 75, 262–267
risk-based approach, 105–110, 116, 127–128, 263–266
in United States, 219–220, 221–222
Data Retention Directive, 61
De Hert, Paul, 241, 255, 265–266, 303
delegated powers of platforms. See public authority functions of platforms
delisting duty of search engines. See right to be forgotten/to erasure
democratic regimes, regulation of platforms, 88–90, 91–94, 111, 159
democratic values. See also constitutional law; fundamental rights; rule of law
and automated decision-making, 119–120, 229, 233
and Big Data analytics, 229–233
Cambridge Analytica scandal, 2, 16, 40, 217
data protection regulation to protect, 232–233
and delegated powers of platforms, 19–21, 77, 82, 99
freedom of expression. See freedom of expression
human dignity. See human dignity
pluralism. See pluralism
and user governance by platforms, 20, 35, 112–116
digital capitalism, 1–2, 23–24, 43, 287, See also neoliberalism
commodification of the human, 255, 256–257
content moderation by platforms, business logic, 167, 173, 176–181
digital humanism contesting, 276, 277–280
hybrid European approach, 280–286
freedom of expression concerns overridden by, 166–168
market power of platforms, 28, 170, 210, 293
digital constitutionalism
concept, 4–6, 26–27
European form. See European digital constitutionalism
Digital Markets Act proposal, 211
Digital Millennium Copyright Act (US), 45, 102
Digital Services Act proposal, 66–67, 74, 105, 150, 283, 291
e-Commerce Directive regime, interaction with, 211–214
GDPR regime, interaction with, 154–155
Digital Single Market (DSM) strategy, 32, 65, 125, 282, 312
Audiovisual Media Services (AVMS) Directive amendments, 66, 69–71, 144, 149, 189–190
Copyright (DSM) Directive, 66, 67–69, 73, 144, 149, 189
Digital Markets Act proposal, 211
Digital Services Act. See Digital Services Act proposal
GDPR. See GDPR (General Data Protection Regulation)
Privacy and Electronic Communications Regulation (proposed), 144
TERREG (Online Terrorist Content Regulation proposal), 66, 71–72, 149–150, 190
discrimination from automated decision-making, 260–261, 278
disinformation, 165
during COVID-19 pandemic, 182
EU Code of Practice on, 190, 208–209
liability risk management by platforms, 103–104
Drahos, Peter, 86–87
Dreyer, Stephan, 259
Dynamic Coalition on Platform Responsibility (Internet Governance Forum), 187
e-Commerce Directive, 41–42, 52, 54, 56, 104–105
Charter rights applied to regime, 57–59
data and content relationship under. See data and content relationship, separate EU law regimes
freedom of expression, Recitals referencing, 46, 56, 102, 127
general monitoring ban, 46–47, 57–58, 68, 143, 149, 190–192
rationale for, 207–208, 210
interactions with other EU regimes, 150–155, 211–214
internal market logic of, 128
procedural safeguards lacking, 148–149
safe harbours for online intermediaries, 44–48, 56–57, 67, 102, 128–129, 132–133, 151
Digital Services Act proposals affecting, 212–214
no territorial scope restrictions, 306, 308
Enforcement Directive, 129–130
e-Privacy Directive, 129–130
Erdos, David, 134, 146
establishment of platforms in EU, 63, 301, 309
EU internal market. See internal market of EU
European Convention on Human Rights 1950 (ECHR)
EU law, relationship with, 54
freedom of expression right, 56, 102, 103, 204–205
human dignity value, 21–22, 220
positive state obligations, 194, 203, 204–205
privacy right, 126, 220, 222–223
right to effective remedy, 205, 206
European Court of Justice, 55–56
European digital constitutionalism, 20–21, 25, 64–67, 275–276, 311–314
competitive disadvantage concern, 281–282, 285
and content moderation by platforms. See under content moderation by platforms
and data and content relationship. See under data and content relationship
digital constitutionalism concept, 4–6, 26–27
DSM strategy. See Digital Single Market (DSM) strategy
evolution. See evolution of European digital constitutionalism
future directions. See future directions of European digital constitutionalism
GDPR. See GDPR (General Data Protection Regulation)
human dignity value underpinning, 21–24, 165, 195, 213, 257, 284, 294, 317
research questions and methodology, 25–34, 312–317
US approach compared, 24–25, 33, 93–94, 162–164, 189, 284, 288–289, 297–298
European Green Deal, 274
EU-US data transfer safe harbour, 61–62, 301–303
Evans, David S., 114
evolution of European digital constitutionalism, 34, 38–40, 78–79, 273, 278–279
1st phase: digital liberalism, 2, 38–39, 41–43, 78, 80–81, 287
free circulation of personal data, 48–52
resilience of, 43–44
safe harbours for online intermediaries. See safe harbours for online intermediaries
US influence on, 42, 44, 45–46
2nd phase:judicial activism, 53–56, 59, 312–313
Charter rights applied to e-Commerce Directive framework, 57–59
data protection and privacy rulings, 60–64, 129–130, 138–143, 253–254
search engines as active intermediaries, 56–57, 130
3rd phase. See Digital Single Market (DSM) strategy; GDPR (General Data Protection Regulation)
4th phase. See future directions of European digital constitutionalism
scholarly explanations for, 25–27
extraterritorial reach of GDPR, 299–303
privacy universalism critique, 303
territorial scope of delisting/content removal orders, 303–309
Facebook, 8, 86, 112, 177, 294
advertising revenue, 167
Australian news ban controversy, 9, 158
content moderation by, 14, 182, 185
Glawischnig-Piesczek v Facebook Ireland Ltd (ECJ), 190–192, 306–307, 309
Donald Trump’s accounts blocked by, 2, 14, 105, 158
global reach and power, 17, 21, 112, 113, 157, 169
Oversight Board, 6, 17, 187, 289
fake news. See disinformation
Finck, Michelle, 237–238
First Amendment. See freedom of expression, US First Amendment
Fitzgerald, Brian, 26
Flew, Terry, 176
Floridi, Luciano, 256–257
Fraser, Nancy, 169
free movement of information society services, 44–45, 46, 92, 102
freedom of expression, 6, 33
Charter right, potential horizontal effect, 197–198
‘collateral censorship’ risk, 207–208
and content moderation by platforms. See under content moderation by platforms
data protection and privacy, relationship with, 145–148
digital technology fostering, 8, 13, 14–15, 91, 157
e-Commerce Directive Recitals referencing, 46, 56, 102, 127
European balancing approach to, 164–165, 200, 206, 284, 304
evolution of right, 126, 160–162
online censorship in authoritarian regimes, 90, 171
positive dimension, 203–207
public regulation of online speech, 13–14, 44, 162–164
and safe harbours for online intermediaries, 46, 59
US First Amendment
content moderation influenced by, 185, 214
and digital regulation, 24–25, 40, 45–46, 93–94, 162–164, 178, 288–289, 293–294, 297–298
horizontal effect lacking, 194–195
liberal approach, 160–161, 162
freedom to conduct business, 206, 262, 284
digital technology fostering, 8
of platforms, 20–21, 58, 91, 153, 207
regulation to take account of, 76–77, 92–93, 200, 210–211
Froomkin, A. Michael, 42–43, 96–97
fundamental rights. See also constitutional law; democratic values; rule of law
digital technology fostering, 8, 11, 13, 14–15, 91, 157, 261
freedom of expression. See freedom of expression
freedom to conduct business. See freedom to conduct business
as general principles of EU law, 55–56
horizontal effect doctrine, 3–4, 30, 64, 188
and content moderation by platforms, 192–201
human dignity. See human dignity
Internet access conceived as right, 29, 66
Nice Charter. See Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union (Nice Charter)
non-delegation of state responsibility for, 100–101
platforms, enforcement by, 17–18, 19, 82, 118–119, 184–186
positive state obligations, 194, 203
data protection, 126–127, 218, 224
freedom of expression protection, 203–207
privacy and personal data protection. See data protection regulation; GDPR (General Data Protection Regulation); privacy in digital environments
proportionality principle. See proportionality principle
future directions of European digital constitutionalism, 2–4, 31–33, 36–37, 273–277, 314–317
artificial intelligence, regulatory proposals, 211, 274, 280, 283–284, 295, 310, 316
constitutional imperialism vs. protectionism, 276–277, 296–298
hybrid European approach, 299, 310–311, See also extraterritorial reach of GDPR
content moderation
Digital Services Act. See Digital Services Act proposal
due process safeguards, 148–150
media pluralism, reframing of, 201–203, 208–209
positive and passive framework, 207–211, 212–214, 315
digital humanism vs. digital capitalism, 276, 277–280
hybrid European approach, 280–286
GDPR, constitutional reframing, 218–219, 253–255, 271–272, 315–316
due process safeguards, 267–271
human centric approach, 255–262
proportionality approach, 262–267
public authority vs. private ordering, 32, 276, 285–288
hybrid European approach, 290–296, 316
Gardbaum, Stephen, 193
GDPR (General Data Protection Regulation), 51, 66, 78, 218, 224, 231, 283, 291–292
algorithmic data processing clashing with principles, 240–246
automated decision-making, rights to protection from, 31, 76–77, 246–253, 259, 261–262, 263–267, 268–270
constitutional reframing, proposals for, 218–219, 253–255, 271–272, 315–316
due process safeguards, 267–271
human centric approach, 255–262
proportionality approach, 262–267
constitutional values underpinning, 36, 259, 263, 280
data controller accountability under, 74–75, 106–108, 116, 152–153, 242, 246, 263–266, 300
extraterritorial reach, 299–303
privacy universalism critique, 303
territorial scope of delisting/content removal orders, 303–309
fundamental rights focus, 74, 240
interactions with other EU regimes, 150–155
‘personal data’ protection under, 234–237, 255–257, 258–259
by anonymisation, 237–239
by pseudonymisation, 239–240, 246
sensitive personal data, 243
privacy by design and by default principles, 75, 107–108, 246
right to data portability, 76
right to erasure. See right to be forgotten/to erasure
weaknesses of regime, 77–78
general monitoring ban, 46–47, 57–58, 68, 143, 149, 190–192
rationale for, 207–208, 210
geo-blocking, 176, 306, 309
German ‘informational self-determination’ right, 221, 258
Gillespie, Tarleton, 177, 184
Ginsburg, Tom, 23
Glawischnig-Piesczek v Facebook Ireland Ltd (ECJ), 190–192, 306–307, 309
global reach of GDPR, 299–303
privacy universalism critique, 303
territorial scope of delisting/content removal orders, 303–309
globalisation, 83, 120–, See also neoliberalism
constitutional law challenged by, 10–11, 32–33, 83–84, 88, 311
platforms facilitating, 11, 53–54
‘Good Samaritan’ rule and clauses, 45, 210, 212
Google, 7, 8, 86, 292
as active intermediary, 56–57, 130, 132–133
data controller. See data controllers, platforms as
advertising revenue, 167
content moderation by, 182
delisting duty. See right to be forgotten/to erasure
establishment in EU, 63, 301, 309
global reach and power, 21, 113, 169
Google Spain (ECJ), 62–64, 138–143, 147, 154, 155, 301
Google v CNIL (ECJ), 303–306, 307–308, 309
Google v Vivi Down (Italy), 154–155
Greenleaf, Graham, 86
Grimmelmann, James, 176
Gutwirth, Serge, 241, 255
Gyanchandani, Manasi, 227
Habermas, Jürgen, 166, 169, 170, 171–172
Hartzog, Woodrow, 119
hate speech control, 19, 104, 177, 179, 185
EU measures on, 69–70, 129, 190
Hildebrandt, Mireille, 18, 244
Hirschl, Ran, 83
horizontal effect doctrine, 3–4, 30, 64, 188
and content moderation by platforms, 192–201
hosting services, safe harbours for. See safe harbours for online intermediaries
Huawei model, 290, 298
human dignity
and data protection and privacy protection, 220, 221, 222, 232, 279
GDPR, proposed human centric approach, 255–262
digital humanism vs. digital capitalism, 276, 277–280
hybrid European approach, 280–286
European digital constitutionalism founded on, 21–24, 165, 195, 213, 257, 284, 294, 317
human intervention in automated decision-making, 182, 184, 185, 211, 215, 252
human rights. See fundamental rights
human-in-the-loop principle, 211, 261, 268–270
Huq, Aziz Z., 23
ICANN, 96–97, 101
immunities for online intermediaries. See safe harbours for online intermediaries
‘informational self-determination’ right (Germany), 221, 258
Infosoc Directive, 129–130
injunctions (blocking orders), 58–59, 98, 190–192
intellectual privacy notion, 146
internal market of EU, 41, 290–291
and data protection regulation, 38, 41–42, 49–51, 60, 127, 223–224
digital constitutionalism, relationship with, 28, 29, 31–32
DSM strategy. See Digital Single Market (DSM) strategy
and early approaches to digital regulation, 43, 46, 128
free movement of information society services, 44–45, 46, 92, 102
Internet access, right to, 29, 66
Internet of Things, 242–243, 279
‘invisible handshake’ approach to platform regulation, 43–44, 97, 183–184, 193, 298
Jaffe, Louis, 117
Jain, Priyank, 227
Jenkins, Henry, 115
Johnson, David R., 42, 84, 90
Kaye, David (UN Special Rapporteur for Freedom of Expression), 188, 203–204
Keller, Daphne, 143, 153
Kessler, Fredrick, 112
Kettemann, Matthias, 7
Khare, Nilai, 227
Kim, Nancy S., 114
King, Jonathan H., 241
Klonick, Kate, 181, 185
Knight, Alison, 238
Kosseff, Jeff, 45
Kuczerawy, Aleksandra, 206
Laney model of Big Data analytics, 226
law. See also constitutional law
as social subsystem, 7–8, 88
interactions with other subsystems, 9–10, 84–88
technological regulation distinguished, 18, 84–85, 117–118
law enforcement and security purposes, data processing for, 43–44, 61–62, 97, 144–145, 183, 235
Lessig, Lawrence, 86, 166, 260
Leyen, Ursula von der, 273–274
Lisbon Treaty, 23, 53, 54, 55, 60, 273
Lynskey, Orla, 12
Macenaite, Milda, 107, 264
MacKinnon, Rebecca, 113
Manila Principles on Intermediary Liability, 187
market power of platforms, 28, 170, 210, 293
Marsden, Christopher, 294–295
media pluralism
content moderation by platforms threatening, 169–176, 180
European digital constitutionalism reframing, 201–203, 208–209
positive state obligation to protect, 205–206
Meiklejohn, Alexander, 162
Melber, Ari, 119
Mendoza, Isak, 248–249
metadata, 235
micro-targeting, 131, 173, 179–180, 217
Mill, John Stuart, 161–162
Milton, John, 161–162
Mittelstadt, Brent, 244
monitoring by platforms. See content moderation by platforms
Montesquieu (Charles de Secondat), 120
Mueller, Milton, 207–208
Murray, Andrew, 11
Myers West, Sarah, 187
national security and law enforcement, data processing for, 43–44, 61–62, 97, 144–145, 183, 235
Negroponte, Nicholas, 80, 169
neoliberalism, 94, See also digital capitalism; globalisation
constitutional values to counter, 12–13, 29, 31–32, 317
and early approaches to digital regulation, 2, 38–39, 43–44, 78, 287
self-regulation by platforms encouraged by, 94–95
Network Gatekeeper Theory, 86–88
news filtering, 14, 169–176, 180
Nice Charter. See Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union (Nice Charter)
Nissenbaum, Helen, 15
non-discrimination right, 260–261
Norton, Helen L., 178
notice and takedown mechanisms, 46, 103–104, 118–119, 142–143, 213
online intermediaries
platforms. See platforms
safe harbours for. See safe harbours for online intermediaries
Pallas, Frank, 237–238
Pariser, Eli, 14
Pasquale, Frank, 16–17, 110, 113–114, 178, 294
passive hosting services, safe harbours for. See safe harbours for online intermediaries
Perritt, Henry H., 86
‘personal data’ protection under GDPR, 234–237, 255–257, 258–259
by anonymisation, 237–239
by pseudonymisation, 239–240, 246
sensitive personal data, 243
personalised content delivery
media pluralism threatened by, 169–176, 180
micro-targeting, 131, 173, 179–180, 217
types of, 174–175
platforms
as active intermediaries. See active intermediaries, platforms as
advertising by. See advertising by platforms
content moderation by. See content moderation by platforms
data processing by. See data processing by platforms
emergence of, 53–54, 80–81, 124–125
establishment in EU, 63, 301, 309
powers, 27–29, 82–83
autonomous powers. See autonomous powers of platforms
‘data power’, 1, 39, 52, 110–111, 114, 167
delegated powers. See public authority functions of platforms
early consolidation of, 38–39, 52, 80–81, 88–89
market power, 28, 170, 210, 293
of public policy influence, 8–10, 99
quasi-judicial powers, 118–119
regulation of. See public regulation of platforms; self-regulation by platforms
transnational constitutional perspective on, 10–11, 32–33, 83–84, 88, 111, 194
pluralism
as democratic value, 88–89, 92, 94, 111, 159
media pluralism
content moderation by platforms threatening, 169–176, 180
European digital constitutionalism reframing, 201–203, 208–209
positive state obligation to protect, 205–206
Polonetsky, Jules, 245
positive state obligations, 194, 203
data protection, 126–127, 218, 224
freedom of expression protection, 203–207
content moderation, positive and passive framework, 207–211, 212–214, 315
Post, David, 42, 84, 90
powers of platforms. See platforms, powers
Privacy and Electronic Communications Directive, 48–
Privacy and Electronic Communications Regulation (proposed), 144
privacy in digital environments, 14–15, 33, See also data protection regulation
anonymity, 14–15
anonymisation of personal data, 237–239
pseudonymisation of personal data, 239–240, 246
automated decision-making, privacy concerns, 216–217, 229, 230
ECJ rulings on, 60–64, 129–130, 138–143, 253–254
freedom of expression, relationship with, 145–148
general monitoring ban, 46–47, 57–58, 68, 143, 149, 190–192
rationale for, 207–208, 210
privacy as negative liberty, 126, 219–220, 224
privacy by design and by default (GDPR principles), 75, 107–108, 246
right to be forgotten/to erasure. See right to be forgotten/to erasure
profiling of users by platforms, 15–16, 39, 54, 131, 167
Big Data analytics. See Big Data analytics
privacy concerns, 14–15, 216–217, 229, 230
proportionality principle
and content moderation by platforms, 58, 68, 93, 129, 210–211
and data protection regulation, 75, 262–267
freedom of expression, European balancing approach, 164–165, 200, 206, 284, 304
pseudonymisation of personal data, 239–240, 246
public authority functions of platforms, 4, 12–13, 34–35, 39–40, 81–82, 95–101, 121, 313
automated decision-making. See automated decision-making
constitutional law concerns, 19–21, 77, 82, 99, 101
constitutional law limits on, 100–101
content moderation. See content moderation by platforms
in COVID-19 pandemic, 6–7, 81, 292
data processing. See data processing by platforms
‘functional sovereignty’ aim, 16–17
fundamental rights protection, 17–18, 19, 82, 118–119, 184–186
non-delegation of state responsibility for, 100–101
and horizontal effect doctrine, 199–200
national security and law enforcement, 43–44, 61–62, 97, 144–145, 183, 235
public policy enforcement, 97–98, 121
public utilities regulation of platforms (proposal), 293–294
public-private partnerships, 18–19, 96, 98–99
technological regulation and law distinguished, 18, 84–85, 117–118
public policy
platforms’ enforcement of, 97–98, 121
platforms’ influence on, 8–10, 99
public regulation of platforms
arguments for, 84–85
in authoritarian regimes. See underauthoritarian regimes
blocking orders, 58–59, 98, 190–192
data protection regulation. See data protection regulation
in democratic regimes, 88–90, 91–94, 111, 159
‘invisible handshake’ approach, 43–44, 97, 183–184, 193, 298
online speech regulation, 13–14, 44, 162–164
platform resistance to, 8–10
as public utilities (proposal), 293–294
‘quantity’ based approaches, failures of, 29–30
and self-regulation, 85–88
future relationship, 32, 276, 285–288, 290–296, 316
technological optimism influencing, 2, 8, 13, 40, 42, 78, 80–81
in United States. See United States, public regulation of platforms
public sphere discourse. See media pluralism
public utilities regulation of platforms (proposal), 293–294
quasi-judicial powers of platforms, 118–119
quasi-public functions of platforms. See public authority functions of platforms
Radin, Margaret J., 112
Rahman, K. Sabeel, 293
redress mechanism of Copyright (DSM) Directive, 69
Regan, Priscilla M., 217
regulation of platforms. See public regulation of platforms; self-regulation by platforms
Reidenberg, Joel R., 11, 85, 97–98, 183–184, 260
Richards, Neil M., 146, 241
right to be forgotten/to erasure, 75–76, 81, 108–109, 200n., 202, 257
Google Spain (ECJ), 62–64, 138–143, 147, 154, 155, 301
territorial scope, 303–309
Roberts, Sarah T., 179, 181
Rosen, Jeffrey, 201
rule of law. See also constitutional law; democratic values; fundamental rights
and content moderation by platforms, 14, 59, 77, 186
and delegated powers of platforms, 19–21, 77, 82, 99
and GDPR, 270
separation of powers principle, 96–97, 99, 120, 199
Russia, Internet regulation in, 297
safe harbours for online intermediaries
Data Protection Directive regime, 129, 133–135
e-Commerce Directive regime, 44–48, 56–57, 67, 102, 128–129, 132–133, 151
Digital Services Act proposals affecting, 212–214
no territorial scope restrictions, 306, 308
EU-US data transfer safe harbour, 61–62, 301–303
freedom of expression rationale, 46, 59
platforms, application to. See active intermediaries, platforms as
in United States, 45–46, 102
Sajó, Andras, 180
Salinger, Evan, 119
Santa Clara Principles on Transparency and Accountability in Content Moderation, 187
Sassen, Saskia, 85
Schneider, Carl E., 113
Schudson, Michael, 174
Schulz, Wolfgang, 259
search engines. See also Google
as active intermediaries, 56–57, 130, 132–133
data controllers. See data controllers, platforms as
delisting duty. See right to be forgotten/to erasure
establishment in EU, 63, 301, 309
Secondat, Charles de (Montesquieu), 120
security and law enforcement purposes, data processing for, 43–44, 61–62, 97, 144–145, 183, 235
self-regulation by platforms
on content moderation
Commission Recommendation on, 72–73
voluntary standards, 187–189, 210, 212
Facebook Oversight Board, 6, 17, 187, 289
neoliberalism encouraging, 94–95
and public regulation, 85–88
future relationship, 32, 276, 285–288, 290–296, 316
technological regulation and law distinguished, 18, 84–85, 117–118
sensitive personal data, 243
separation of powers principle, 96–97, 99, 120, 199
Shachar, Ayelet, 83
Shadmy, Tomer, 115
Shapiro, Andrew L., 166
Shearing, Clifford, 86–87
Simpson, Seamus, 44
single market of EU. See internal market of EU
Slawson, David, 112–113
Snowden, Edward, 15, 298
social media, 131, See also Facebook; video-sharing platforms
content moderation. See content moderation by platforms
Donald Trump’s accounts blocked, 2, 14, 105, 158
freedom of expression fostered by, 8, 13, 91, 157
media pluralism threatened by, 169–176, 180
public regulation of online speech, 13–14, 44, 162–164
safe harbours for providers. See safe harbours for online intermediaries
US liberal approach to accessing, 163–164
speech moderation
by platforms. See content moderation by platforms
by public regulators, 13–14, 44, 162–164
Srnicek, Nick, 170
Stalla-Bourdillon, Sophie, 238
state action doctrine (US), 30
state regulation of platforms. See public regulation of platforms
status subjectionis of users, 20, 35, 112–116, 210–211, 214, 317
Sunstein, Cass R., 14, 172
surveillance capitalism, 2, 43, 173, 233
Suzor, Nicolas, 4, 27
technological optimism, 2, 8, 13, 40, 42, 78, 80–81, 101
technological regulation and law distinguished, 18, 84–85, 117–118
Telman, D.A., 114
Tene, Omer, 245
terms of service of platforms
on acceptable speech or conduct, 184
autonomous powers exercised under, 17, 116–118, 119
status subjectionis of users under, 20, 35, 112–116, 210–211, 214, 317
TERREG (Online Terrorist Content Regulation proposal), 66, 71–72, 149–150, 190
Teubner, Gunther, 9–10, 88, 89, 111, 194
third-party content
EU copyright licensing system, 67–69, 73
moderation by platforms. See content moderation by platforms
safe harbours for online intermediaries. See safe harbours for online intermediaries
TikTok, 298
transnational constitutionalism
constitutional imperialism vs protectionism, 276–277, 296–298
hybrid European approach, 299–311
and platforms’ powers, 10–11, 32–33, 83–84, 88, 111, 194
Treaty of Lisbon, 23, 53, 54
Trump, Donald
online censorship executive order, 189, 288
social media accounts blocked, 2, 14, 105, 158
Turkle, Sherry, 14–15
Tushnet, Mark, 194, 196
Tushnet, Rebecca, 178
Twitter, 86, 187
accounts blocked by, 2, 14, 105, 158, 183
UN Sustainable Development Goals, 274
United States
data protection and privacy regulation, 219–220, 221–222
EU-US data transfer safe harbour, 61–62, 301–303
freedom of expression. See freedom of expression, US First Amendment
human dignity value, 21
public regulation of platforms
Communication Decency Act, 45–46, 102, 162–163, 189, 212, 288
Digital Millennium Copyright Act, 45, 102
First Amendment underpinning, 24–25, 40, 45–46, 93–94, 162–164, 178, 288–289, 293–294, 297–298
safe harbours for online intermediaries, 45–46, 102
state action doctrine, 30, 100, 194
Universal Declaration of Human Rights 1948, 257
user governance. See terms of service of platforms
user-generated content
EU copyright licensing system, 67–69, 73
moderation by platforms. See content moderation by platforms
safe harbours for online intermediaries. See safe harbours for online intermediaries
Versteeg, Mila, 23
Vestager, Margrethe, 287
video-sharing platforms. See also social media
access control by, 149
content moderation by, 69–71, 81
Google v Vivi Down (Italy), 135–138, 154, 155
Volkszählungsurteil case (German Constitutional Court), 221, 258
voluntary standards on content moderation, 187–189, 210, 212
Ward, John S., 227
Warren, Samuel D., 219–220
Weinberg, Jonathan, 97
Weinrib, Lorraine, 21
Whitman, James Q., 222
YouTube, 14, 81, 158, 176–177
Zalnieriute, Monika, 308
Zarsky, Tal, 243
Zittrain, Jonathan, 96, 170
Zuboff, Shoshana, 113, 233
Zuckerberg, Mark, 17, 112, 217

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  • Index
  • Giovanni De Gregorio, University of Oxford
  • Book: Digital Constitutionalism in Europe
  • Online publication: 06 May 2022
  • Chapter DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009071215.010
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  • Index
  • Giovanni De Gregorio, University of Oxford
  • Book: Digital Constitutionalism in Europe
  • Online publication: 06 May 2022
  • Chapter DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009071215.010
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  • Index
  • Giovanni De Gregorio, University of Oxford
  • Book: Digital Constitutionalism in Europe
  • Online publication: 06 May 2022
  • Chapter DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009071215.010
Available formats
×