Théberge, Paul (2007) Any Sound You Can Imagine: Making Music/Consuming Technology (Hanover, NH: Wesleyan University Press)Google Scholar

Ryan, Joel (1991) “Some remarks on musical instrument design at STEIM,” Contemporary Music Review, 6(1): 3–17CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Toffler, Alvin (1970) Future Shock (London: Pan Books Ltd.).Google Scholar

Taylor, Timothy D. (2001) Strange Sounds: Music, Technology, and Culture (New York: Routledge).Google Scholar

Rubin, Mike (2000) “Techno: Days of future past” in Shapiro, Peter (ed.), Modulations. A History of Electronic Music: Throbbing Words on Sound (New York: Distributed Art Publishers Inc.), pp. 108–27Google Scholar

Bowker, Geoffrey C. and Star, Susan Leigh (2000) Sorting Things Out: Classification and its Consequences (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press).Google Scholar

Shuker, Roy (2008) Understanding Popular Music Culture, 3rd edn. (Abingdon: Routledge), pp. 5–7.Google Scholar

Johnson, Scott (2000) “The counterpoint of species” in Zorn, John (ed.), Arcana: Musicians on Music (New York: Granary Books, Inc.), pp. 18–58.Google Scholar

Wishart, Trevor (1996) On Sonic Art, revised edn., edited by Simon Emmerson (New York: Routledge).

Licata, Thomas (ed.) (2002) Electroacoustic Music: Analytical Perspectives (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press)Google Scholar

Simoni, Mary (ed.) (2006) Analytical Methods of Electroacoustic Music (New York: Routledge)Google Scholar

Reynolds, Simon (2005) Rip It Up and Start Again (London: Faber & Faber).Google Scholar

Nieber, Louis (2010) Special Sound: The Creation and Legacy of the BBC Radiophonic Workshop (New York: Oxford University Press), p. 73.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Rodgers, Tara (ed.) (2010) Pink Noises: Women on Electronic Music and Sound (Durham, NC: Duke University Press)CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Hinkle-Turner, Elizabeth (2006) Women Composers and Music Technology in the United States (Aldershot: Ashgate)Google Scholar

A more open scene for women in Berlin is discussed in Tony Naylor (2008) “The female techno takeover,” The Guardian, May 24,

Henderson, Dave (2010) Journey to a Plugged In State of Mind (London: Cherry Red Books)Google Scholar

Cox, Christoph and Warner, Daniel (eds.) (2004) Audio Culture: Readings in Modern Music (London; New York: Continuum)Google Scholar

Davies, Hugh (1996) “A history of sampling,” Organised Sound, 1(1): 3–11CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Angliss, Sarah (2011) The Bird Fancyer's Delight. BBC Radio 4, July 5

Hugill, Andrew (2007) “The origins of electronic music” in Collins, Nick and d’Escriván, Julio (eds.), The Cambridge Companion to Electronic Music (Cambridge University Press), pp. 7–23, at p. 14Google Scholar

Brock-Nannestad, George (2009) “The development of recording technologies” in Cook, Nicholas, Clarke, Eric, Leech-Wilkinson, Daniel, and Rink, John (eds.), The Cambridge Companion to Recorded Music (Cambridge University Press), pp. 149–76.Google Scholar

An art interest in the player piano continued as an early acoustic sequencer; the music of Conlon Nancarrow is worth exploring here. George Antheil's Ballet Mécanique (1926) uses the player piano as a central agent of mechanization

Eargle, John (2005) The Microphone Book (Oxford: Focal Press).Google Scholar

Milner, Greg (2009) Perfecting Sound Forever: The Story of Recorded Music (London: Granta Publications).Google Scholar

Holmes, Thom (2012) Electronic and Experimental Music, 4th edn. (New York: Routledge), pp. 48–9.Google Scholar

d’Escriván, Julio (2009) “Sound art (?) on/in film,” Organised Sound, 14(1): 65–73.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Katz, Mark (2004) Capturing Sound: How Technology Has Changed Music (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press), p. 104.Google Scholar

Lerner, Neil (2010) “The strange case of Rouben Mamoulian's sound stew: The uncanny soundtrack in Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde (1931)” in Lerner, Neil (ed.), Music in the Horror Film: Listening to Fear (New York: Routledge), pp. 55–79.Google Scholar

Levin, Thomas Y. (2003) “‘Tones from out of nowhere’: Rudolph Pfenninger and the archaeology of synthetic sound,” Grey Room, 12: 32–79.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Moritz, William (2004) Optical Poetry: The Life and Work of Oskar Fischinger (Bloomington: Indiana University Press).Google Scholar

Manning, Peter (2005) “The influence of recording technologies on the early development of electroacoustic music,” Leonardo Music Journal, 13: 5–10Google Scholar

Moholy-Nagy, László (2004, originally 1922/3) “Production-reproduction: potentialities of the phonograph” in Cox and Warner (eds.), Audio Culture, pp. 331–3.

Kane, Brian (2011) “Acousmatic fabrications: Les Paul and the ‘Les Paulverizer’,” Journal of Visual Culture, 10(2): 212–31.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Dack, John (2009) “From sound to music, from recording to theory,” in Bayley, Amanda (ed.), Recorded Music: Performance, Culture and Technology (Cambridge University Press), pp. 271–90.Google Scholar

Palombini, Carlos (1993) “Machine songs V: Pierre Schaeffer. From research into noises to experimental music,” Computer Music Journal, 17(3): 14–19.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

In some cases, ostensible remixes turn out as covers, as when the KLF remixed the Pet Shop Boys’ So Hard (1990), re-made all parts and got Neil Tennant to sing the vocal again! There are also remixes which are entirely new tracks, as in the urban myth of the courier turning up at Aphex Twin's residence to collect a remix on deadline day and Richard James handing over a randomly selected DAT; the record company loved the work

Grobelny, Joseph (2008) “Mashups, sampling, and authorship: A mashupsampliography,” Music Reference Services Quarterly, 11(3–4): 229–39.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

A mania shown to good dramatic effect in Woody Allen's imaginary jazz guitarist biopic Sweet and Lowdown (1999)

Leech-Wilkinson, Daniel (2009) The Changing Sound of Music: Approaches to Studying Recorded Musical Performance (London: CHARM)Google Scholar

Chanan, Michael (1995) Repeated Takes: A Short History of Recording and its Effects on Music (London: Verso).Google Scholar

Moorefield, Virgil (2005) The Producer as Composer: Shaping the Sounds of Popular Music (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press), p. 3Google Scholar

Harrower, Andy (2005) “Copyright issues in digital music,” Contemporary Music Review, 24(6): 483–8.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Miller, Paul D. (ed.) (2008) Sound Unbound: Sampling Digital Music and Culture (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press).Google Scholar

Murphy, John P. (1990) “Jazz improvisation: The joy of influence,” The Black Perspective in Music, 18(1–2): 7–19.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Scratch (2001), directed by Doug Pray

Beadle, Jeremy J. (1993) Will Pop Eat Itself? Pop Music in the Soundbite Era (London: Faber & Faber).Google Scholar

Hugh Davies (2012) “Denis d'or,” Grove Music Online. Oxford Music Online,

Schiffer, Michael B., Hollenback, Kacy L., and Bell, Carrie L. (2003) Draw the Lightning Down: Benjamin Franklin and Electrical Technology in the Age of Enlightenment (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press), p. 172.Google Scholar

Labaree, Leonard W. (ed.) (1962) The Papers of Benjamin Franklin (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press), vol. 5, p. 69.Google Scholar

Herbermann, Charles (ed.) (1913) “Andrew Gordon” in Catholic Encyclopedia (New York: Robert Appleton Company), p. 649.Google Scholar

Page, C. G. (1837) “The production of galvanic music,” American Journal of Science, 32: 396–7Google Scholar

Evenson, Edward (2000) The Telephone Patent Conspiracy of 1876: The Elisha Gray–Alexander Bell Controversy (Jefferson, NC: McFarland)Google Scholar

Fessenden, Helen M. (1940) Fessenden: Builder of Tomorrows (New York: Coward-McCann, Inc.), p. 153.Google Scholar

Chadabe, Joel (1997) Electric Sound (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall), p. 6.Google Scholar

de Forest, Lee (1950) Father of Radio: The Autobiography of Lee de Forest (Chicago: Wilcox & Follett), pp. 306–7.Google Scholar

Winston, Brian (1998) Media Technology and Society: A History: From the Telegraph to the Internet (London: Routledge), p. 44.Google Scholar

Anonymous (1900) “December 20, 1900: Nature reports on William Duddell's ‘musical arcs’,” APS News, 19(11): 2.Google Scholar

Weidenaar, Reynold (1995) Magic Music from the Telharmonium (London: Scarecrow Press, Inc.).Google Scholar

Pierce, Edwin Hall (1924) “A colossal experiment in ‘just intonation’,” Musical Quarterly, 10(3): 326–32.Google Scholar

Anonymous (1906) “Twain and the telephone,” New York Times, December 23

Baker, Ray Stannard (1906) “New music for an old world,” McClure's Magazine, 27(3): 291–301.Google Scholar

Busoni, Ferruccio (1907) Sketch of a New Esthetic of Music. Translated by Dr. Th. Baker (New York: Schirmer)Google Scholar

Anonymous (1907) “Music on wires,” New York Globe and Commercial Adverstiser, January 31, p. 4. Quoted in Weidenaar, Magic Music from the Telharmonium, p. 136

Borroff, Edith (1982) “The Choralcelo: One uniquely American instrument,” College Music Symposium, 22(1): 46–54.Google Scholar

Khazam, Rahma (2009) “Nikolay Obukhov and the Croix Sonore,” Leonardo Music Journal, 19: 11–12.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Glinsky, Albert (2000). Theremin: Ether Music and Espionage (Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press).Google Scholar

Anonymous (1934) “TITTERS GREET MUSIC OF OBOUHOFF IN PARIS; singers’ strange performance, accompanied by electrical instrument, causes stir,” New York Times, May 16

Stange-Elbe, Joachim (1994) “Elektrische Musikinstrumente: Ein historischer Rückblick mit zeitgenössischen Dokumenten. 5.Teil: Sphärenklänge,” ZeM Mitteilungsheft, 14: 6–10Google Scholar

Stange-Elbe, Joachim (1994) “Elektrische Musikinstrumente: Ein historischer Rückblick mit zeitgenössischen Dokumenten. 6.Teil: Saitenspiele (1),” ZeM Mitteilungsheft, 15: 6–10Google Scholar

Holzer, Derek (2010) “A brief history of optical synthesis,” Tonewheels: Audiovisual Performance,

Davies, Hugh and Donhauser, Peter (2011) “Superpiano,” Grove Music Online. Oxford Music Online,

Miessner, Benjamin F. (1936) “Electronic music and instruments,” Proceedings of the Institute of Radio Engineers, 24(11)Google Scholar

Heřman, Jiři (2006) “Sons & lumières” in Disk II/2006 – Selections from the Czech Journal for the Study of Dramatic Art (Prague: Nakladatelstvi), pp. 138–52Google Scholar

For full technical detail of the original design, see Laurens Hammond (1934) “Electrical musical instrument,” US Patent 1956350

Anonymous (1938) “ORGAN COMPANY CITED: FTC orders Hammond makers to cease representations,” New York Times, July 12. See also the discussion at

The Clavioline had true vibrato, i.e., variation in pitch rather than amplitude. See Gordon Reid (2007) “The story of the Clavioline,” Sound on Sound, March,

Benjamin Grosbayne (1931) “ELECTRICITY, ETHER AND INSTRUMENTS: Some considerations, reflections, and inferences on the modern cult of vitamineless art and the synthetic aesthetic,” New York Times, September 6

Schaeffer, Pierre (1952) A la Recherche d'une Musique Concrète (Paris: Éditions du Seuil).Google Scholar

Peignot, Jérôme (1960) “De la musique concrète à l'acousmatique,” Esprit, 280: 111–23.Google Scholar

Minar, E. L. (1944) “Pythagorean communism,” Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association, 75: 34–46, at 39.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Schaeffer, Pierre (1966) Traité des objets musicaux (Paris: Le Seuil), p. 91.Google Scholar

Chion, Michel (1983) Guide des objets sonores, Pierre Schaeffer et la recherche musicale (Paris: Ina-GRM/Buchet-Chastel)Google Scholar

Kane, Brian (2007) “L’Objet Sonore Maintenant: Pierre Schaeffer, sound objects and the phenomenological reduction,” Organised Sound, 12(1): 15–24.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Manning, Peter (2004) Electronic and Computer Music (Oxford University Press), pp. 19 and 28.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Berio, Luciano (1956) “Studio di Fonologia Musicale,” The Score, 15: 86.Google Scholar

Stockhausen, Karlheinz (1964) Texte zur Musik 2, Dieter Schnebel (ed.) (Cologne: Verlag M. DuMont Schauberg), p. 23.Google Scholar

Stockhausen, Karlheinz (1961) “Two lectures,” Die Reihe 5 (Bryn Mawr: Theodore Presse), p. 59.

Davies, Hugh (2003) “Obituary: Daphne Oram,” The Guardian, January 24

Young, Gayle (1989) The Sackbut Blues: Hugh Le Caine, Pioneer in Electronic Music (Ottawa: National Museum of Science and Technology).Google Scholar

Young, Gayle (1984) “Hugh Le Caine: Pioneer of electronic music in Canada,” HSTC Bulletin: Journal of the History of Canadian Science, Technology and Medecine / HSTC Bulletin : revue d'histoire des sciences, des techniques et de la médecine au Canada, 8(1): 20–31CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Caine, Hugh Le (1953) “Short presentation of the 1948 Sackbut: The Sackbut Blues.” Republished in An Anthology of Noise and Electronic Music, Vol. 4. Sub Rosa (2006).

Bourne, Warren (2008) “Cary, Tristram,” Grove Music Online. Oxford Music Online

Schrader, Barry (2008) “Barron, Bebe,” Grove Music Online. Oxford Music Online

Schrader, Barry (2008) “Barron, Louis,” Grove Music Online. Oxford Music Online

Brockman, J. (1992) “The first electronic filmscore: Forbidden Planet,” The Score, 7(3): 5–13.Google Scholar

Pritchett, James (1996) The Music of John Cage (Cambridge University Press), p. 91Google Scholar

Bayly, Richard (1983) “Ussachevsky on Varèse: An interview April 24, 1979 at Goucher College,” Perspectives of New Music 21(1–2): 145–51CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Sitsky, Larry (2002) Music of the Twentieth-Century Avant-Garde: A Biocritical Sourcebook (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press), p. 533Google Scholar

Meyer, Felix and Zimmerman, Heidi (eds.) (2006) Edgard Varèse – Composer, Sound Sculpture, Visionary (Woodbridge: Boydell Press), p. 340Google Scholar

Mattis, Olivia (2006) “From Bebop to Poo-wip: Jazz influences in Varèse's Poème électronique” in Meyer and Zimmerman (eds.), Edgard Varèse, pp. 309–17.

Kagel, Mauricio (2006) “Edgard Varèse: Years later” in Meyer and Zimmerman (eds.), Edgard Varèse, pp. 476–8.

Pinch, Trevor and Trocco, Frank (2002) Analog Days: The Invention and Impact of the Moog Synthesizer (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press), p. 118.Google Scholar

Vail, Mark (2000) Vintage Synthesizers (San Francisco, CA: Backbeat Books), p. 26Google Scholar

Pinch, and Trocco, (Analog Days, p. 216)

Pinch, and Trocco, , Analog Days, p. 11.

Kester, Walt (ed.) (2005) The Data Conversion Handbook (Burlington, MA: Newnes).Google Scholar

Collins, Nick (2010) Introduction to Computer Music (Chichester: Wiley), p. 36.Google Scholar

Hiller, Lejaren and Isaacson, Leonard (1959) Experimental Music: Composition with an Electronic Computer (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press).Google Scholar

Mathews, Max V. (1963) “The digital computer as a musical instrument,” Science, 142 (3592): 553–7.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed

Holmes, , Electronic and Experimental Music, pp. 176–90.

Manning, Electronic and Computer Music, p. 207

Spiegel, Laurie (1998) “Graphical GROOVE: memorial for the VAMPIRE, a visual music system,” Organised Sound, 3(3): 187–91.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Vail, Vintage Synthesizers, pp. 143, 220.

Ojanen, Mikko, Suominen, Jari, Kallio, Titti, and Lassfolk, Kai (2007) “Design principles and user interfaces of Erkki Kurenniemi's electronic musical instruments of the 1960s and 1970s,” Proceedings of the 2007 Conference on New Interfaces for Musical Expression (NIME07), New York.Google Scholar

There is also a movie glorifying Erkki Kurenniemi's circuits, The Future Is Not What It Used to Be (2002), directed by Mika Taanila

Four generations of these would go up to the famous 4X (completed by 1984), empowering such works as Pierre Boulez's Répons (1984)

Boulez, Pierre and Gerzso, Andrew (1988) “Computers in music,” Scientific American, 258(4): 44–50CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Holmes, Electronic and Experimental Music, p. 281.

Vail, Vintage Synthesizers, p. 68

Peel, Ian (2005) “Trevor Horn: 25 years of hits,” Sound on Sound, March

Holmes, , Electronic and Experimental Music.

Hugill, , “The origins of electronic music.”

Lombardo, Vincenzo, Valle, Andrea, Fitch, John, Tazelaar, Kees, Weinzierl, Stefan, and Borczyk, Wojciech (2009) “A virtual-reality reconstruction of Poème électronique based on philological research,” Computer Music Journal, 33(2): 24–47.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Wierzbicki, James (2005) Louis and Bebe Barron's Forbidden Planet: A Film Score Guide (Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press, Inc.).Google Scholar

(Glinksy, Albert (2005) Theremin: Ether Music and Espionage (Urbana and Chicago, IL: University of Illinois Press))Google Scholar

Pinch, and Trocco, , Analog Days, p. 274.

d’Escriván, Julio (2007) “Electronic music and the moving image” in Collins and d’Escriván (eds.), The Cambridge Companion to Electronic Music, pp. 156–70.CrossRef

Möritz, William (2004) Optical Poetry: The Life and Work of Oskar Fischinger (Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press)Google Scholar

Levin, Thomas Y. (2003) “‘Tones from out of nowhere’: Rudolph Pfenninger and the archaeology of synthetic sound,” Grey Room, 12: 32–79.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Lack, Russell (1997) “Electronic film music and musical understanding” in Twenty Four Frames Under: A Buried History of Film Music (London: Quartet Books Ltd.), pp. 310–21Google Scholar

More were missed out; you might investigate sound design in THX 1138 (1971), for example

Donnelly, K. J. (2010) “Hearing deep seated fears: John Carpenter's The Fog (1980)” in Lerner, Neil (ed.), Music in the Horror Film: Listening to Fear (New York: Routledge), pp. 152–67.Google Scholar

Or at least simulacra of acoustic instruments through large sample databases. Lack (“Electronic film music,” p. 315) points to Hans Zimmer as very successfully blurring the line between acoustic and electronic in Black Rain (1990)

Chion, Michel (1994) Audio-vision (New York: Columbia University Press)Google Scholar

Wierzbicki, , Louis and Bebe Barron's Forbidden Planet, p. 21

A further footnote here is to the fate of one of Maddalena Fagandini's popular 1960 interval signals, which became grafted onto the Time Beat (1962) single pushed out by George Martin under the male cover name Ray Cathode, obscuring her role

Rodman, Ron (2011) “‘Coperettas,’ ‘Detecterns,’ and space operas: Music and genre hybridization in American television’ in Deaville, James (ed.), Music in Television: Channels of Listening (New York: Routledge), pp 35–56, at p. 50Google Scholar

Scott, Raymond (2000) Manhattan Research Inc. BASTA Audio/Visuals, Holland, CD liner notes, p. 50.Google Scholar

Holmes, , Electronic and Experimental Music, p. 194.

Pinch, and Trocco, , Analog Days, pp. 55–6

Smith, Ethan (2002) “Organization Moby,” Wired, 10.05Google Scholar

Collins, Karen (2008) Game Sound (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press).Google Scholar

Everett, Walter (2009) The Foundations of Rock: From Blue Suede Shoes to Suite: Judy Blue Eyes (New York: Oxford University Press), particularly pp. 78–81.Google Scholar

Morton Subotnick's commission to produce Silver Apples of the Moon (1967) is a companion piece, of modest success, showcasing Don Buchla's synthesizer. Indicative of the Moog–Buchla split on keyboard versus alternative controllers, Carlos re-works Bach for a greater mass success, and Buchla uses sequencers for some accessibility, but is much more abstract in general approach

It's a recurring theme of popular music, such as with David Bowie's not-so-electronic Space Oddity (1969) tapping into the Moon landing mania

It is worth acknowledging the commercial musicians working on their own record releases as well as sessions, commercials, and movies; Beaver and Krause's The Nonesuch Guide to Electronic Music (1966), for instance, stayed on the Billboard chart for 26 weeks (Henderson, Journey to a Plugged In State of Mind, p. 74)

Toop, David (2000) Rap Attack 3: African Rap to Global Hip Hop (London: Serpent's Tail), p. 126.Google Scholar

Dibben, Nicola (2009) Björk (London: Equinox Publishing Ltd.).Google Scholar

Whilst not directly synth pop but a sort of eclectic mix from soul to hip hop (“cybersoul”), a more recent manifestation of Metropolis’ far-reaching influence is Janelle Monáe's Cindi Mayweather alias and backstory to her Metropolis: Suite I (The Chase) E.P. (2007) and The ArchAndroid (Suites II and III) album (2010)

Reynolds, Simon (1999) Generation Ecstasy: Into the World of Techno and Rave Culture (New York: Routledge), p. 14Google Scholar

Bussy, Pascal (2005) Kraftwerk: Man, Machine and Music, 3rd edn. (London: SAF Publishing Ltd.), p. 190Google Scholar

In this same era, Throbbing Gristle began their industrial experiments, growing out of performance art scenes. Though known more for their weirder side in noise and industrial music, they produced the odd subversive sickly and repetitive synth pop track, such as United (1978)

Numan, Gary with Malins, Steve (1979) Praying to the Aliens: An Autobiography (London: Andre Deutsch)Google Scholar

Goodwin, Paul (2004) Electric Pioneer: An Armchair Guide to Gary Numan (London: Helter Skelter Publishing)Google Scholar

Thompson, Dave (1994) Depeche Mode: Some Great Reward (New York: St. Martin's Press), p. 6Google Scholar

Hook, Peter (2009) The Haçienda: How Not to Run a Club (London: Simon & Schuster)Google Scholar

Albiez, Sean and Pattie, David (eds.) (2011) Kraftwerk: Music Non-Stop (New York: Continuum), p. 172Google Scholar

David Pattie (2011) “Introduction: The (Ger)man machines” in Albiez and Pattie (eds.), Kraftwerk: Music Non-Stop, p. 8

Cross, Ian (2001) “Music, cognition, culture and evolution,” Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 930: 28–42CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Straw, Will (2007) “Dance music” in Frith, Simon, Straw, Will and Street, John (eds.), The Cambridge Companion to Pop and Rock (Cambridge University Press), pp. 158–77Google Scholar

Toop, David (2000) Rap Attack 3: African Rap to Global Hip Hop (London: Serpent's Tail), p. 143Google Scholar

McLeod, Kembrew (2001) “Genres, subgenres, sub-subgenres and more: Musical and social differentiation within electronic/dance music communities,” Journal of Popular Music Studies, 13: 59–75CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Brewster, Bill and Broughton, Frank (2006) Last Night a DJ Saved My Life (London: Headline Book Publishing), p. 307Google Scholar

Moog engineer Robbie Wedel is credited with the synthesizer programming and sync in Richard Buskin (2009) “Donna Summer ‘I Feel Love’: Classic tracks,” Sound on Sound, October,

, Toop, Rap Attack 3; Shapiro, Peter (2005) Turn the Beat Around: The Secret History of Disco (London: Faber & Faber)Google Scholar

Gordon Reid (2004) “The history of Roland part 2: 1979–1985,” Sound on Sound, December,

Discussion of the first acid house track takes us down a familiarly difficult road of attribution. As Roland had originally hoped, the TB-303 was used in all sorts of places, from Italo-disco (Alexander Robotnick's Problèmes D’Amour (1983)), through indie pop (Orange Juice's No. 8 UK hit Rip It Up (1983)) to an obscure at the time work created by composer Charanjit Singh in Mumbai: Synthesizing: Ten Ragas to a Disco Beat (1982). See “The primer on the Roland TB-303” The Wire, 303 (May 2009) and Stuart Aitken (2011) “Charanjit Singh on how he invented acid house…by mistake,” The Guardian, May 10, 2011,

Sicko, Dan (2010) Techno Rebels: The Renegades of Electronic Funk, 2nd edn. (Detroit, MI: Wayne State University Press)Google Scholar

Andy Thomas (2011) “ELECTRONIC ENIGMA: The myths and messages of Detroit techno,” Wax Poetics, 45. Reproduced with additional discussion at

Richard, Birgit and Kruger, Heinz Hermann (1998) “RAVERS’ PARADISE?: German youth cultures in the 1990s” in Skelton, Tracey and Valentine, Gill (eds.), Cool Places: Geographies of Youth Cultures (London: Routledge), pp. 162–75Google Scholar

Haslam, Dave (2001) Adventures on the Wheels of Steel: The Rise of the Superstar DJs (London: Fourth Estate), p. 8Google Scholar

Steingo, Gavin (2005) “South African music after Apartheid: Kwaito, the ‘party politic,’ and the appropriation of gold as a sign of success,” Popular Music and Society, 28(3): 333–57CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Kirn, Peter (ed.) (2011). Keyboard Presents the Evolution of Electronic Dance Music (Montclair, NJ: Backbeat Books)Google Scholar

Reynolds, Simon (2007) Bring the Noise: 20 Years of Writing About Hip Rock and Hip Hop (London: Faber & Faber), pp. 312–29Google Scholar

Butler, Mark J. (2006) Unlocking the Groove (Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press), p. 137Google Scholar

Chion, M. (1982) La musique électroacoustique (Paris: PUF), p. 9Google Scholar

Schedel, Margaret (2007) “Electronic music and the studio” in Collins and d’Escriván (eds.), The Cambridge Companion to Electronic Music, pp. 24–37

Born, Georgina (1995) Rationalizing Culture: Boulez, IRCAM, and the Instituionalization of the Musical Avant-Garde (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press)CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Tazelaar, Kees (2009) “The Institute of Sonology,” Leonardo Music Journal, 19: 69–70CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Dhomont, Francis (2007) “For classicism,” in Collins and d’Escriván (eds.), The Cambridge Companion to Electronic Music, pp. 194–5

de Visscher, Eric (2001) “Vande Gorne, Annette” in Sadie, Stanley and Tyrrell, John (eds.), The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, 2nd edn. (London: Macmillan)Google Scholar

Harrison, Jonty (1989) “Denis Smalley, EMAS and (electro-acoustic) music,” Musical Times, 130(1759): 528–9, 531.CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Clozier, Christian (2001) “The Gmebaphone concept and the cybernéphone Instrument,” Computer Music Journal, 25(4): 81–90CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Bayle, François (2007) “Space, and more,” Organised Sound, 12(3): 241–9CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Harrison, Jonty (1999) “Diffusion: Theories and practices, with particular reference to the BEAST system,” eContact, 2(4)Google Scholar

Malham, David G. and Myatt, Anthony (1995) “3-D sound spatialization using ambisonic techniques,” Computer Music Journal, 19(4): 58–70CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Ramakrishnan, Chandrasekhar, Goßmann, Joachim, and Brümmer, Ludger (2006) “The ZKM Klangdom,” Proceedings of the 2006 International Conference on New Interfaces for Musical Expression (NIME06), Paris, France, pp. 140–3

Wilson, Scott and Harrison, Jonty (2010) “Rethinking the BEAST: Recent developments in multichannel composition at Birmingham ElectroAcoustic Sound Theatre,” Organised Sound, 15: 239–50CrossRefGoogle Scholar

McFarlane, W. Matthew (2003) “The development of acousmatics in Montréal,” eContact, 6(2)Google Scholar

Dhomont, Francis (1995) “Acousmatic update / Rappel acousmatiques,” eContact, 8(2)Google Scholar

Jonty Harrison (2006) “Dilemmas, dichotomies and definitions: Acousmatic music and its precarious situation in the arts,” keynote address to the SoundAsArt conference. Available online at:

Collins, Nicolas (2004) “Composers Inside Electronics: Music after David Tudor,” Leonardo Music Journal, 14(1): 1–3Google Scholar

Kuivila, Ron (2004) “Open sources: Words, circuits and the notation-realization relation in the music of David Tudor,” Leonardo Music Journal, 14: 17–23, at 20CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Lucier, Alvin (1995) “‘Every room has its own melody’” in Reflections/Reflexionen (Cologne: Musiktexte), pp. 94–103.

Lucier, Alvin (1995) “‘I am sitting in a room’” in Reflections/Reflexionen, pp. 322–35

Nyman, Michael (1999) Experimental Music: Cage and Beyond, 2nd edn. (Cambridge University Press)Google Scholar

Truax, Barry (1996) “Soundscape, acoustic communication and environmental sound composition,” Contemporary Music Review, 15(1–2): 49–65CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Truax, Barry (2001) Handbook for Acoustic Ecology [CD-ROM] (Vancouver: Cambridge Street Publishing)Google Scholar

Zahler, Noel B. (2012) “Davidovsky, Mario,” Grove Music Online. Oxford Music Online

Anderson, Julian (2000) “A provisional history of spectral music,” Contemporary Music Review, 19(2): 7–22CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Young, Diana (2002) “The Hyperbow controller: Real-time dynamics measurement of violin performance,” Proceedings of the 2002 Conference on New Instruments for Musical Expression (NIME-02), Dublin, Ireland.Google Scholar

Lewis, George (2000) “Too many notes: Computers, complexity and culture in Voyager,” Leonardo Music Journal, 19: 33–9Google Scholar

Lewis, George (1999) “Interacting with latter day musical automata,” Contemporary Music Review, 18(3): 99–112CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Ferrari, Luc (1996) “I was running in so many different directions,” Contemporary Music Review, 15(1–2): 95–104CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Collins, Nick (2009) “Electronica” in Dean, Roger (ed.), The Oxford Handbook to Computer Music (New York: Oxford University Press), pp. 334–53Google Scholar

Eno, Brian (2004) “Ambient music” in , Cox and , Warner (eds.), Audio Culture, pp. 94–7

Duckworth, William (2005) Virtual Music: How the Web Got Wired for Sound (New York: Routledge), p. 5Google Scholar

Amusingly, for the Residents are masters of dark humour, they released a disco dance beat version of Eskimo called Diskomo (1980)!

Young, Rob (2005) Warp Labels Unlimited (London: Black Dog Publishing), p. 56Google Scholar

Solomis, Makis (1997) (Kanach, Sharon (trans.)) Liner notes to Xenakis: Electronic Music, Electronic Music Foundation Ltd

Harley, James (2004) Xenakis: His Life in Music (New York: Routledge)Google Scholar

Apollono, Umbro (ed.), Brain, Robert, Flint, R. W., Higgitt, J. C., and Tisdall, Caroline (translations) (1973) Futurist Manifestos (London: Thames & Hudson), pp. 86–7Google Scholar

Sinclair, Mick (1984) “CONCERTO FOR VOICE AND MACHINERY,” Sounds, January,

Cascone, Kim (2000) “The aesthetics of failure: ‘Post-digital’ tendencies in computer music,” Computer Music Journal, 24(4): 12–18CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Stuart, Caleb (2003) “Damaged sound: Glitching and skipping compact discs in the audio of Yasunao Tone, Nicolas Collins and Oval,” Leonardo Music Journal, 13: 47–52CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Young, Rob (2002) “Worship the glitch” in Young, Rob (ed.), Undercurrents: The Hidden Wiring of Modern Music (London: Continuum), pp. 45–55Google Scholar

Vanhanen, Janne (2003) “Virtual sound: Examining glitch and production,” Contemporary Music Review, 22(4): 45–52CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Thomson, Phil (2004) “Atoms and errors: Towards a history and aesthetics of microsound,” Organised Sound, 9(2): 207–18CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Concannon, Kevin (1990) “CUT AND PASTE: COLLAGE AND THE ART OF SOUND,” from Sound by Artists, Art Metropole and Walter Phillips Gallery. Available at

Ghazala, Reed (2005) Circuit-Bending: Build Your Own Alien Instruments (Indianapolis, IN: Wiley Publishing, Inc.)Google Scholar

Collins, Nicolas (2006) Handmade Electronic Music: The Art of Hardware Hacking (New York: Routledge)Google Scholar

Latartara, John (2011) “Laptop composition at the turn of the millennium: Repetition and noise in the music of Oval, Merzbow, and Kid606,” Twentieth-Century Music, 7(1): 91–115CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Stockhausen, Karlheinz et al. (2004) “Stockhausen vs. the ‘technocrats’” in , Cox and , Warner (eds.), Audio Culture, pp. 381–5

Written on the actual CD of Autechre, Anti EP (1994), Warp Records

, Christoph Cox (2003) “Return to form: Christoph Cox on neo-modernist sound art,” Artforum International, XLII(3)Google Scholar

Alan, Licht (2007) Sound Art: Beyond Music, Between Categories (New York: Rizzoli), p. 221.Google Scholar

Demers, Joanna (2010) Listening Through the Noise: The Aesthetics of Experimental Electronic Music (Oxford University Press), p. 70CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Marclay, Christian (2012) Cyanotypes (Zurich: Ringier)

Lewis, George, quoted in Jeanne Schinto (2001) “Raptured,”

Furlong, William (2011, original 1994) in Kelly, Caleb (ed.), Sound (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press/London: Whitechapel Gallery), p. 67Google Scholar

Neuhaus, Max (2000) “Sound art?” Liner notes for Volume: Bed of Sound (New York: P.S.1)Google Scholar

Neuhaus, Max (1993), letter provided by Silvia Neuhaus

Neuhaus, Max, quoted in Alicia Zuckerman (2002) “Max Neuhaus’ ‘Times Square’,” Arts Electric

Marclay, Christian, quoted in Philip Sherburne (2005) “This artist makes music like you've never seen before, and art like you've never heard before,” Interview, March: 162–7

Licht, Alan (2009) “Organizing the unpredictable: Tim Knowles and Pe Lang + Zimoun at bitforms gallery,”

Murray Schafer, R. (1994) The Soundscape: Our Sonic Environment and the Tuning of the World (Rochester,VT: Destiny Books), p. 212Google Scholar

Cardiff, Janet, quoted in Mirjam Schaub (2005) Janet Cardiff: The Walk Book (Vienna: ThyssenBornemisza Art Contemporary), p. 79Google Scholar

Tate, Greg (2007) Black Light White Noise (Houston: Contemporary Arts Museum), p. 42.Google Scholar

Hegarty, Paul (2007) Noise Music: A History (New York: Continuum), p. 175Google Scholar

Ryoji Ikeda (1997) +/− TO: 30 Touch, liner notes

Stankievech, Charles (2007) “From stethoscopes to headphones: An acoustic spatialization of subjectivity,” Leonardo Music Journal, 17: 55–9CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Ouzounian, Gascia (2008) “Sound art and spatial practices: Situating sound installation art since 1958,” Ph.D. thesis, University of California, San Diego, p. 280

Wagner, Richard (1849) “Outlines of the artwork of the future” in Packer, Randall and Jordan, Ken (eds.) (2001), Multimedia: From Wagner to Virtual Reality (New York: W.W. Norton), p. 3Google Scholar

Vaughan, Tay (2006) Multimedia: Making it Work (New York: McGraw-Hill), p. 13Google Scholar

Friedman, Ken (2005) in Breder, Hans and Busse, Klaus-Peter (eds.), Intermedia: Enacting the Liminal (Dortmund: Schriften Zur Kunst), p. 51Google Scholar

Charles Hamilton, Albert (1990) The Spenser Encyclopedia (University of Toronto Press), p. 171Google Scholar

Berdahl, Edgar and Ju, Wendy (2011) “Satellite CCRMA: A musical interaction and sound synthesis platform,” Proceedings of the New Interfaces for Musical Expression Conference, Oslo, Norway

Lash, Larry L. (2003) Financial Times, November 12

Fox, Barbara (2005) “Schaeffer stands his ground: Orfée 53 and evocative sound,” EMS: Electroacoustic Music Studies Network, Montréal

Chion, Michael (1998) L’Opéra Concret: Musiques Concrètes 1971–1997 MCE, liner notes

Blesser, Barry and Salter, Linda-Ruth (2006 Spaces Speak, Are You Listening?: Experiencing Aural Architecture (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press), p. 5.Google Scholar

Cage, John (2011) Silence: Lectures and Writings, 50th Anniversary Edition. (Middletown, CT: Wesleyan University Press), p. 8.Google Scholar

Ashley, Robert (2011) “The influence of John Cage,”

Sterken, Sven (2001) “Towards a space-time art: Iannis Xenakis's polytopes,” Perspectives of New Music, 39(2): 262–73.Google Scholar

Worrall, David (1996) “A multichannel performance space for presenting experimental polymedia compositions,” MediaMix ’96, University of York

Snibbe, Scott (2011) “With Biophilia, Björk creates album art for the 21st century (it's an app!),

Ryan, Nick in Kiss, Jemima (2010) “Papa Sangre: The sonic iPhone horror game you've been looking for,” The Guardian,

There are also musical uses of game theory, which is the study of strategic decision making used famously by Iannis Xenakis in his compositions Duel (1959), Stratégie (1962), and Linaia Agon (1972)

Bryan, Beverly (2008) “Lucky Dragons ‘Make a Baby’ with electricity and audience participation,” VenusZine

Feldmeier, Mark and Paradiso, Joseph. A. (2007) “An interactive music environment for large groups with giveaway wireless motion sensors,” Computer Music Journal, 31(1): 50–67CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Hahn, Tomie and Bahn, Curtis (2002) “Pikapika – the collaborative composition of an interactive sonic character,” Organised Sound, 7(3): 229–38CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Kapur, Ajay, Darling, Michael, Diakopoulos, Dimitri, Murphy, Jim, Hochenbaum, Jordan, Vallis, Owen, and Bahn, Curtis (2011) “The machine orchestra: An ensemble of human laptop performers and robotic musical instruments,” Computer Music Journal, 25(4): 49–63CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Kapur, Ajay (2005) “A history of robotic musical instruments,” Proceedings of the International Computer Music Conference, Barcelona

Lehrman, Paul D. and Singer, Eric (2006) “A ‘Ballet mécanique’ for the 21st century: Performing George Antheil's Dadaist masterpiece with robots,” Proceedings of the New Interfaces for Musical Expression Conference, ParisGoogle Scholar

Thomas, Margaret E. (2000) “Nancarrow's canons: Projections of temporal and formal structures,” Perspectives of New Music, 38(2): 106–33CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Boden, Margaret and Edmonds, Ernest (2009) “What is generative art?” Digital Creativity, 20(1–2): 21–46CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Rowe, Robert (2001) Machine Musicianship (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press), p. 6.Google Scholar

Ikeshiro, Ryo (2012) “Audiovisual harmony: The realtime audiovisualisation of a single data source in Construction in Zhuangzi,” Organised Sound, 17(2): 148–55CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Hermann, Thomas, Hunt, Andy, and Neuhoff, John G. (2011) “Introduction” in Hermann, Thomas, Hunt, Andy, and Neuhoff, John G. (eds.), The Sonification Handbook (Berlin: Logos Publishing House), p. 21Google Scholar

Kobakhidze, Archil (2012) “Higgs the musical: The sound of the ‘God particle’,” The Conversation, July 19, 2012

Manovich, Lev (2002) “The anti-sublime ideal in data art,”

Sturm, Bob (2005) “Pulse of an ocean: Sonification of ocean buoy data,” Leonardo Music Journal, 38(2): 143–9CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Paine, Garth (2009) “Pools, pixies and potentials,” Proceedings of the 2009 International Symposium on Electronic Arts, Singapore

Asher, M. and Harries, Guy (2004) Infantry. Sub Rosa 186

Whitelaw, Mitchell (2008) “Synaesthesia and cross-modality in contemporary audioviduals,” Senses and Society, 3(3): 259–76, at 261CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Alves, Bill (2005) “Digital harmony of sound and light,” Computer Music Journal, 29(4): 45–54CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Alexander, Amy and Collins, Nick (2008) “Live audiovisuals” in Collins and d’Escriván (eds.), The Cambridge Companion to Electronic Music, pp. 126–39

Chafe, Chris and Gurevich, Michael (2004) “Network time delay and ensemble accuracy: Effects of latency, asymmetry,” Proceedings of the AES 117th Convention, San Francisco, CAGoogle Scholar

Caceres, Juan-Pablo and Chafe, Chris (2009) “JackTrip: Under the hood of an engine for network audio,” Proceedings of the International Computer Music Conference, Montréal

Dahl, Luke, Herrera, Jorge, and Wilkerson, Carr (2011) “TweetDreams: Making music with the audience and the world using real-time Twitter data,” Proceedings of the New Interfaces for Musical Expression Conference, Oslo, NorwayGoogle Scholar

DuBois, Luke (2011) “The first computer musician,”

Spiegel, Laurie (1992) “Music: Who makes it? Who just takes it?” “Backpage” guest editorial in Electronic Musician, 8(1): 114Google Scholar

Bongers, Bert (2000) “Physical interfaces in the electronic arts: Interaction theory and interfacing techniques for real-time performance” in Wanderley, Marcelo M. and Battier, Marc (eds.), Trends in Gestural Control of Music (Paris: IRCAM)Google Scholar

Rohrhuber, Julian, De Campo, Alberto, Wieser, Renate, Van Kampen, Jan-Kees, Ho, Echo, and Hölzl, Hannes (2007) “Purloined letters and distributed persons,” Music in the Global Village Conference

Auto-Tune use has become ubiquitous. It has even been used to doctor talent show auditions, as in a 2010 scandal on the UK show X Factor. See Mark Savage (2010) “How commonplace is auto-tune?” BBC News, August 23, 2010, . Auto-Tune and other pitch-correction technologies have appeared in many popular music and music gaming contexts: One of the most amusing uses of Auto-Tune is in the YouTube series “Auto-Tune the news,” which mixes up news footage with auto-tuned speech and music production

Bailey, Derek (1980) Improvisation: Its Nature and Practice in Music (Ashbourne: Moorland Publishing)Google Scholar

Harrison, Jonty (1998) “Sound, space, sculpture: Some thoughts on the ‘what’, ‘how’ and ‘why’ of sound diffusion,” Organised Sound, 3(2): 117–27CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Collins, Nicolas (2007) “Live electronic music” in Collins and d’Escriván (eds.), The Cambridge Companion to Electronic Music, pp. 38–54, at pp. 43–5

Emmerson, Simon (2009) “Combining the acoustic and the digital: Music for instruments and computers or prerecorded sound” in Dean, Roger T. (ed.), The Oxford Handbook of Computer Music (New York: Oxford University Press), pp. 167–88, at p. 168Google Scholar

Miranda, Eduardo R. and Wanderley, Marcelo M. (2006) New Digital Musical Instruments: Control and Interaction Beyond the Keyboard (Middleton, WI: A-R Editions, Inc.)Google Scholar

Oore, Sageev (2005) “Learning advanced skills on new instruments (or practising scales and arpeggios on your NIME,” Proceedings of NIME 2005, Vancouver, Canada, pp. 60–5

Smith, Sophy (2000) “Compositional strategies of the hip-hop turntablist,” Organised Sound, 5: 75–9CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Caramanica, Jon (2011) “Lots of beats, but no drum in sight,” New York Times, February 11

Keane, David (1979) “Some practical aesthetic problems of electronic music composition,” Interface, 8: 193–205, at 197CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Ryan, Joel (1991) “Some remarks on musical instrument design at STEIM,” Contemporary Music Review, 6(1): 3–17CrossRefGoogle Scholar

d’Escriván, Julio (2006) “To sing the body electric: Instruments and effort in the performance of electronic music,” Contemporary Music Review, 25(1–2): 183–91CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Croft, John (2007) “Theses on liveness,” Organised Sound, 12(1): 59–66CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Cascone, Kim (ed.) (2003) “The laptop and electronic music,” Contemporary Music Review, 22(4)

Schloss, Andrew W. (2003) “Using contemporary technology in live performance: The dilemma of the performer,” Journal of New Music Research, 32(3): 239–42CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Thompson's, Bill dismantle (2010) amplifies the sounds of laptop destruction against a backdrop of London's cathartically destructive Scrap Club

Thompson, Bill (2010) “Scrapyard aesthetics and the swansong of the Inspiron,” eContact!, 12(3)Google Scholar

Alexander, Amy and Collins, Nick (2007) “Live audiovisuals” in Collins and d’Escriván (eds.), The Cambridge Companion to Electronic Music, pp. 126–39CrossRef

Cook, Nicholas (1998) Analyzing Musical Multimedia (Oxford University Press)Google Scholar

Neill, Ben (2002) “Pleasure beats: Rhythm and the aesthetics of current electronic music,” Leonardo Music Journal, 12: 3–6CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Trueman, Dan (2007) “Why a laptop orchestra?” Organised Sound, 12(2): 171–9CrossRefGoogle Scholar

Emmerson, Simon (2007) Living Electronic Music (Aldershot: Ashgate), p. 114Google Scholar

Brown, Chris and Bischoff, John (2002) “Indigenous to the Net: Early network music bands in the San Francisco Bay area,”

Jordà, Sergi (2007) “Interactivity and live computer music” in Collins and d’Escriván (eds.), The Cambridge Companion to Electronic Music, pp. 89–106

Wang, Ge, Essl, Georg, and Penttinen, Henri (2012) “The mobile phone orchestra” in Gopinath, Sumanth and Stanyek, Jason (eds.), The Oxford Handbook of Mobile Music Studies (New York: Oxford University Press)Google Scholar

Bellaviti, Sean (2007) “Perception, reception, and all that popular music: An interview with Alejandro Viñao,” Discourses in Music, 6(2) (Spring–Summer)

Wrench, Nigel (2008) “Lost tapes of the Dr Who composer,” BBC News, July 18