Skip to main content Accessibility help

We use cookies to distinguish you from other users and to provide you with a better experience on our websites. Close this message to accept cookies or find out how to manage your cookie settings.

Close cookie message
×
Hostname: page-component-6bb9c88b65-vpjdr Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2025-07-20T23:33:56.205Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

3 - Benefits of nitrogen for food, fibre and industrial production

from Part I - Nitrogen in Europe: the present position

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  16 May 2011

By
Lars Stoumann Jensen ,
Jan K. Schjoerring ,
Klaas W. van der Hoek ,
Hanne Damgaard Poulsen ,
John F. Zevenbergen ,
Christian Pallière ,
Joachim Lammel ,
Frank Brentrup ,
Age W. Jongbloed  and
Jaap Willems
...Show all authors
Edited by
Mark A. Sutton ,
Clare M. Howard ,
Jan Willem Erisman ,
Gilles Billen ,
Albert Bleeker ,
Peringe Grennfelt ,
Hans van Grinsven  and
Bruna Grizzetti
Lars Stoumann Jensen
Affiliation:
University of Copenhagen
Jan K. Schjoerring
Affiliation:
University of Copenhagen
Klaas W. van der Hoek
Affiliation:
National Institute for Public Health and the Environment
Hanne Damgaard Poulsen
Affiliation:
Aarhus University
John F. Zevenbergen
Affiliation:
TNO Defence, Security and Safety
Christian Pallière
Affiliation:
Fertilizers Europe
Joachim Lammel
Affiliation:
Yara International Centre
Frank Brentrup
Affiliation:
Yara International Centre
Age W. Jongbloed
Affiliation:
Wageningen UR Livestock Research
Jaap Willems
Affiliation:
Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency
Hans van Grinsven
Affiliation:
Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency
Mark A. Sutton
Affiliation:
NERC Centre for Ecology and Hydrology, UK
Clare M. Howard
Affiliation:
NERC Centre for Ecology and Hydrology, UK
Jan Willem Erisman
Affiliation:
Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam
Gilles Billen
Affiliation:
CNRS and University of Paris VI
Albert Bleeker
Affiliation:
Energy Research Centre of the Netherlands
Peringe Grennfelt
Affiliation:
Swedish Environmental Research Institute (IVL)
Hans van Grinsven
Affiliation:
PBL Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency
Bruna Grizzetti
Affiliation:
European Commission Joint Research Centre
Get access

Summary

Executive summary

Nature of the issue

  • Reactive nitrogen (Nr) has well-documented positive effects in agricultural and industrial production systems, human nutrition and food security. Limited Nr supply was a key constraint to European food and industrial production, which has been overcome by Nr from the Haber–Bosch process.

  • Given the huge diversity in Nr uses, it becomes a major challenge to summarize an overall inventory of Nr benefits. This full list of benefits needs to be quantified if society is to develop sound approaches to optimize Nr management, balancing the benefits against the environmental threats.

Approaches

  • When reviewing trends in European Nr production rates, including those from chemical and biological fixation processes, and the consumption of this Nr in human activities, agriculture is by far the largest sector driving Nr creation.

  • Particular attention has been given to relationships between N application rates, productivity and quality of products from major crops and livestock types, including consideration of the mechanisms underlying variations in N response/outputs and the derived impacts on land use and land requirements.

Key findings/state of knowledge

  • The economic value of N benefits to the European economy is very substantial. Almost half of the global food can be produced because of Nr from the Haber–Bosch, and cereal yields in Europe without fertilizer would only amount to half to two-thirds of those with fertilizer application at economically optimal rates.

  • […]

Information

Type
Chapter
Information
The European Nitrogen Assessment
Sources, Effects and Policy Perspectives
 , pp. 32 - 61
Publisher: Cambridge University Press
Print publication year: 2011

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

Book purchase

Temporarily unavailable

References

Aarts, H. F. M, Daatselaar, C. H. G. and Holshof, G. (2008). Bemesting, Meststofbenutting en Opbrengst van Productiegrasland en Snijmaïs op melkveebedrijven. Plant Research International B.V., Wageningen.Google Scholar
Akiyama, H., Yan, X. Y. and Yagi, K. (2010). Evaluation of effectiveness of enhanced-efficiency fertilizers as mitigation options for N2O and NO emissions from agricultural soils: meta-analysis. Global Change Biology, 16, 1837–1846.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Balmford, A., Green, R. E. and Scharlemann, J. P. W. (2005). Sparing land for nature: exploring the potential impact of changes in agricultural yield on the area needed for crop production. Global Change Biology, 11, 1594–1605.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Barlóg, P. and Grzebisz, W. (2004). Effect of timing and nitrogen fertilizer application on winter oilseed rape (Brassica napus L.) I. Growth dynamics and seed yield. Journal of Agronomy and Crop Science, 190, 305–313.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Baukal, C. E. (2003). Industrial Combustion Pollution and Control. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bellarby, J., Foereid, B., Hastings, A. and Smith, P. (2008). Cool Farming: Climate Impacts of Agriculture and Mitigation Potential. Greenpeace International, Amsterdam, The Netherlands. (available at http://www.greenpeace.org).Google Scholar
Berry, P. M. and Spink, J. H. (2009). Canopy Management and Late Nitrogen Applications to Improve Yield of Oilseed Rape, HGCA Project Report No. 447.
Birkmose, T. S. (2009). Nitrogen recovery from organic manures: Improved slurry application techniques and treatment – the Danish scenario. In: Proceedings 656, International Fertilizer Society, York, UK.Google Scholar
Bleken, M. A., Steinshamn, H. and Hansen, S. (2005). High nitrogen costs of dairy production in Europe: worsened by intensification. Ambio, 34, 598–606.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Bos, J., Pflimlin, A., Aarts, H.F.M. and Vertès, F. (eds.) (2003). Nutrient management at farm scale. In: First Workshop of the EGF working group ‘Dairy farming systems and environment’, Quimper, France 23–25 June 2003. Plant Research International, Wageningen.Google Scholar
Brentrup, F. and Palliere, C. (2008). GHG emissions and energy efficiency in European Nitrogen fertilizer production and use. In: Proceedings 639, International Fertilizer Society, York, UK.Google Scholar
Brink, C., Grinsven, H., Jacobsen, B. H.et al. (2011). Costs and benefits of nitrogen in the environment. In: The European Nitrogen Assessment, ed. Sutton, M.A., Howard, C. M., Erisman, J. W.et al. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Bruges, J. (2007). The Big Earth Book: Ideas and Solutions for a Planet in Crisis. Alastair Sawday, London.Google Scholar
Buchel, K. H., Moretto, H. H. and Woditsch, P. (2000). Industrial Inorganic Chemistry, 2nd edn, Wiley-VCH, New York.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Burney, J. A., Davis, S. J. and Lobella, D. B. (2010). Greenhouse gas mitigation by agricultural intensification. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 107, 12052–12057.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Cassman, K. G., Dobermann, A., Walters, D. T. and Yang, H. (2003). Meeting cereal demand while protecting natural resources and improving environmental quality. Annual Reviews of Environmental Resources, 28, 315–358.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Caton, J. A. and Xia, Z. (2004). The selective non-catalytic removal of nitric oxides from engine exhaust streams: comparison of three processes. Journal of Engineering for Gas Turbines and Power, 126, 234–240.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
,CBS (2009). Animal Manure and Minerals 1990–2008* (Dierlijke mest en mineralen 1990–2008*). Centraal Bureau voor de Statistiek, Den Haag/Heerlen (in Dutch).
Cerrato, M. E. and Blackmer, A. M. (1990) Comparison of models for describing corn yield response to nitrogen fertilizer. Agronomy Journal, 82, 138–143.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chien, S. H., Prochnow, L. I. and Cantarella, H. (2009). Recent developments of fertilizer production and use to improve nutrient efficiency and minimize environmental impacts. Advances in Agronomy 102, 267–322.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Chmielewski, A. G., Tyminski, B., Pawelec, A. and Licki, J. (2002). Industrial plant for flue gas treatment with high power electron accelerators. In: AIP Conference Proceedings, 680 (1), International Conference on the application of accelerators in research and Industry, Denton, Texas, USA.Google Scholar
Dalling, M. J. (1985). The physiological basis of nitrogen redistribution during grain filling in cereals. In: Exploitation of Physiological and Genetic Variability to Enhance Crop Productivity, American Society of Plant Physiologists, Chicago, IL, pp. 55–71.Google Scholar
Dämmgen, U., Haenel, H.-D., Rösemann, C.et al. (2009). Improved national calculation procedures to assess energy requirements, nitrogen and VS excretions of dairy cows in the German emission model GAS-EM. Landbauforschung – vTI, Agriculture and Forestry Research, 3, 233–252.Google Scholar
Dampney, P., Dyer, C., Goodlass, G. and Chambers, B. (2006). Crop responses to Different N Fertilizer Materials. Component report for Defra report NT 2605. Defra, London.Google Scholar
Fries, W., Leip, A., Reinds, G. J.et al. (2011). Geographic variation in terrestrial nitrogen budgets across Europe. In: The European Nitrogen Assessment, ed. M. A. Sutton, C. M. Howard, J. W. Erisman et al. Cambridge University Press.
Deenen, P. J. A. G. and Lantinga, E. A. (1993). Herbage and animal production responses to fertilizer nitrogen in perennial ryegrass swards. I. Continuous grazing and cutting. Netherlands Journal of Agricultural Science, 41, 179–203.Google Scholar
Domene, L. A. F. and Ayres, R. U. (2001). Nitrogen's role in industrial systems. Journal of Industrial Ecology, 5, 77–103.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Dourmad, J. Y., Seve, B., Latimier, P.et al. (1999). Nitrogen consumption, utilisation and losses in pig production in France, The Netherlands and Denmark. Livestock Production Science, 58, 261–264.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
,EFMA (2003). Understanding nitrogen and its use in agriculture. European Fertilizer Manufacturers Association (now Fertilizers Europe), report, 64 pp.
,EFMA (2007). Forecast of food, farming and fertilizer use in the European Union 2007–2017. European Fertilizer Manufacturers Association (now Fertilizers Europe), report, 7 pp.
,EFMA (2009). Forecast of food, farming and fertilizer use in the European Union 2009–2019. European Fertilizer Manufacturers Association (now Fertilizers Europe), report, 20 pp.
Erisman, J. W., Sutton, M. A., Galloway, J., Klimont, Z. and Winiwarter, W. (2008). How a century of ammonia synthesis changed the world. Nature Geoscience, 1, 636–639.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
,EU Glossary (2010). Common agricultural policy (CAP). Available at http://europa.eu/scadplus/glossary/agricultural_policy_en.htm (accessed 4 Aug 2010).
,Eurostat (2009). Agricultural statistics, Annual selling prices of crop products per 100 kg; wheat and rape 1995–2008. Accessed at http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/portal/page/portal/agriculture/data/database June 2010.
Fangueiro, D., Pereira, J., Coutinho, J., Moreira, N. and Trindade, H. (2008). NPK farm-gate nutrient balances in dairy farms from Northwest Portugal. European Journal of Agronomy, 28, 625–634.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
,FAO (2008). Current World Fertilizer Trends and Outlook to 2012. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome.Google Scholar
,FAO (2009). FAOSTAT Database Collections. Food and Agriculture Organization of The United Nations. Rome. http://faostat.fao.org/.
Fefac, (2009). Feed and Food: Statistical Yearbook 2007. Fefac, Brussels.Google Scholar
Feller, C., Fink, M., Maync, A.et al. (2001) Düngung im Freilandgemüsebau. Institut für Gemüse- und Zierpflanzenbau Großbeeren/Erfurt e.V.
Foulkes, M. J., Hawkesford, M. J., Barraclough, P. B.et al. (2009). Identifying traits to improve the nitrogen economy of wheat: Recent advances and future prospects. Field Crops Research, 114, 329–342.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Galloway, J. N., Schlesinger, W. H., Levy, H. II, Michaels, A. and Schnoor, J. L. (1995). Nitrogen fixation: atmospheric enhancement–environmental response. Global Biogeochemical Cycles, 9, 235–252.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Godfrey, D., Hawkesford, M. J., Powers, S. J., Millar, S. and Shewry, P. R. (2010). Effects of crop nutrition on wheat grain composition and end use quality. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 58, 3012–3021.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Grant, R., Pedersen, L. E., Blicher-Mathiesen, G.et al. (2009). Landovervågningsoplande 2007, Report no. 709 from DMU/NERI (in Danish, with English summary).
Gyldenkærne, S. and Mikkelsen, M. H. (2007). Projection of the Ammonia Emission from Denmark from 2005 until 2025, NERI Technical Report No. 239. National Environmental Research Institute, University of Aarhus.
Henke, J., Breusted, G., Sieling, K. and Kage, H. (2007). Impact of uncertainty on the optimum nitrogen fertilisation rate and agronomic, ecological and economic factors in an oilseed rape based crop rotation. Journal of Agricultural Science, 145, 455–468.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Herridge, D. F., Peoples, M. B. and Boddey, R. M. (2008). Global inputs of biological nitrogen fixation in agricultural systems. Plant and Soil, 311, 1–18.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
,IPCC (2007). Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change: Technical Summary. In: Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [S. Solomon, D. Qin, M. Manning, Z. Chen, M. Marquis, I. B. Averyt, M. Tignor and HL. Miller (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press.
Irigoyen, I., Lamsfus, C., Aparicio-Tejo, P. and Muro, J. (2006). The influence of 3,4-dimethylpyrazole phosphate and dicyandiamide on reducing nitrate accumulation in spinach under Mediterranean conditions. Journal of Agricultural Science, 144, 555–562.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jarvis, S., Hutchings, N., Brentrup, F., Olesen, J. and Hoek, K. (2011). Nitrogen flows in farming systems across Europe. In: The European Nitrogen Assessment, ed. Sutton, M. A., Howard, C. M., Erisman, J. W.et al. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Jenkinson, D.S. (2001). The impact of humans on the nitrogen cycle, with focus on temperate arable agriculture. Plant and Soil, 228, 3–15.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Johnston, A. E. and Poulton, P. R. (2009). Nitrogen in agriculture: an overview and definitions of nitrogen use efficiency. In: Proceedings 651, International Fertilizer Society, York, UK.
Johnston, A. E., Poulton, P. R. and Coleman, K. (2009). Soil organic matter: its importance in sustainable agriculture and carbon dioxide fluxes. Advances in Agronomy, 101, 1–57.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Jongbloed, A. W. and Lenis, N. P. (1998). Environmental concerns about animal manure. Journal of Animal Science, 76, 2641–2648.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Karp, A. and Shield, I. (2008). Bioenergy from plants and the sustainable yield challenge. New Phytologist, 179, 15–32.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Kitou, E., Fernandez, R., Gugele, B., Goettlicher, S. and Ritter, M. (2009). Annual European Community Greenhouse Gas Inventory 1990–2007 and Inventory Report 2009. European Commission, DG Environment European Environment Agency. http://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/european-community-greenhouse-gas-inventory-2009/.
Kohn, R. A., Dou, Z., Ferguson, J. D. and Boston, R. C. (1997). A sensitivity analysis of nitrogen losses from dairy farms. Journal of Environmental Management, 50, 417–428.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lantinga, E. A., Deenen, P. J. A. G. and Keulen, H. (1999). Herbage and animal production responses to fertilizer nitrogen in perennial ryegrass swards. II. Rotational grazing and cutting. Netherlands Journal of Agricultural Science, 47, 243–261.Google Scholar
,LEI (2009). Agricultural prices in the Netherlands. Milk- and fertilizer (CAN) prices 1995–2008. Accessed June 2010 at http://www.lei.wur.nl/NL/statistieken/Agrarische+prijzen/.
Leip, A., Achermann, B.Biller, G.et al. (2011). Integrating nitrogen fluxes at the European scale. In: The European Nitrogen Assessment, ed. Sutton, M. A., Howard, C. M., Erisman, J. W.et al. Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lewis, A. J. and Southern, L. L. (2001). Swine Nutrition. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.Google Scholar
Lopez-Bellido, R. J., Lopez-Bellido, L., Benıtez-Vega, J. and Lopez-Bellido, F. J. (2007). Tillage system, preceding crop, and nitrogen fertilizer in wheat crop: II. Water utilization. Agronomy Journal, 99, 59–65.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Makowski, D., Wallach, D. and Meynard, J. M. (1999). Models of yields, grain protein and residual mineral nitrogen responses to applied nitrogen for winter wheat. Agronomy Journal, 91, 377–385.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Marschner, H. (1995). Mineral Nutrition of Higher Plants, Academic Press, London.Google Scholar
Maxwell, G. R. (2004). Synthetic Nitrogen Products: A Practical Guide to the Products and Processes. Kluwer Academic/New York.Google Scholar
Monroe, C. E. and Hall, C. (2006). Explosives in Metal Mining and Quarry Operations, Merchant Books.Google Scholar
Mosier, N., Wyman, C., Dale, B.et al. (2005). Features of promising technologies for pretreatment of lignocellulosic biomass. Bioresource Technology, 96, 673–686.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Nadeau, E., Englund, J.-E. and Gustafsson, A. H. (2007). Nitrogen efficiency of dairy cows as affected by diet and milk yield. Livestock Science, 111, 45–56.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Nevens, F. and Reheul, D. (2003). Effect of cutting or grazing grass swards on herbage yield, nitrogen uptake and residual soil nitrate at different levels of N fertilisation. Grass and Forage Science, 58, 431–449.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Oenema, O., Bleeker, A., Braathen, N. A.et al. (2011). Nitrogen in current European policies. In: The European Nitrogen Assessment, ed. Sutton, M. A., Howard, C. M., Erisman, J. W.et al. Cambridge University Press.Google Scholar
Offermann, F. and Nieberg, H. (2000). Economic Performance of Organic Farms in Europe. In: Organic Farming in Europe: Economics and Policy, Volume 5. University of Hohenheim, Department of Farm Economics, Stuttgart, Germany.Google Scholar
Peeters, A. and Kopec, S. (1996). Production and productivity of cutting grasslands in temperate climates of Europe. The Proceedings of the 16th General Meeting European Grasslands Federation, pp. 59–73.
Persson, P. A., Holmberg, R. and Lee, J. (1993). Rock Blasting and Explosives Engineering. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.Google Scholar
Pettersson, C. G. and Eckersten, H. (2007). Prediction of grain protein in spring malting barley grown in northern Europe. European Journal of Agronomy, 27, 205–214.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Peyraud, J. L. and Delaby, L. (2004). Can we minimize nitrogen excretion in dairy herds while maintaining performances? In: Animal Production in Europe: The Way Forward in a Changing World. Volume. 1. International Society for Animal Hygiène, Saint-Malo, France.Google Scholar
Pilbeam, C. J. (1996). Effect of climate on the recovery in crop and soil of N-15- labelled fertilizer applied to wheat. Fertilizer Research 45, 209–215.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Pitre, F. E., Pollet, B., Lafarguette, F.et al. (2007). Effects of increased nitrogen supply on the lignification of poplar wood. Journal of Agriculture and Food Chemistry, 55, 10306–10314.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Porteaus, F., Hill, J., Ball, A. S.et al. (2009). Effect of free air carbon dioxide enrichment (FACE) on the chemical composition and nutritive value of wheat grain and straw. Animal Feed Science and Technology, 149, 322–332.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Poulsen, H. D. (2009). Danish Standard Values on Nutrient Content in Manure – 2009. (in Danish). Available at http://www.agrsci.dk/ny_navigation/institutter/institut_for_husdyrsundhed_velfaerd_og_ernaering/husdyrernaering_og_miljoe/normtal, Aug 2010.
Poulsen, H. D., Lund, P., Sehested, J., Hutchings, N. and Sommer, S. G. (2006). Quantification of nitrogen and phosphorus in manure in the Danish normative system. In: 12th Ramiran International Conference: Technology for recycling of manure and organic residues in a whole-farm perspective, DIAS report no. 123 from Danish Institute of Agricultural Sciences, vol. II, pp. 105–107.
Powlson, D. S., Hart, P. B. S., Pruden, G. and Jenkinson, D. S. (1986a). Recovery of 15N-labelled fertilizer applied in autumn to winter wheat at four sites in eastern England. Journal of Agricultural Science, 107, 611–620.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Powlson, D. S., Pruden, G., Johnston, A. E. and Jenkinson, D. S. (1986b). The nitrogen cycle in the Broadbalk wheat experiment: recovery and losses of 15N-labelled fertilizer applied in spring and inputs of nitrogen from the atmosphere. Journal of Agricultural Science, 107, 591–609.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Prins, W. H. (1983). Limits to nitrogen fertilizer on grassland. Ph. D. Thesis, Wageningen Agricultural University.
Raison, C., Pflimlin, A. and Gall, A. (2006). Optimisation of environmental practices in a network of dairyfarms of the Atlantic Area. In: Proceedings of the Final Seminar of the Green Dairy Project Interreg. Atlantic Area III B No.100, Rennes, 13–14 December 2006, pp. 43–65.
Rathke, G. W., Christen, O. and Diepenbrock, W. (2005). Effects of nitrogen source and rate on productivity and quality of winter oilseed rape (Brassica napus L.) grown in different crop rotations. Field Crops Research 94, 103–113.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Raun, W. R., Johnson, G. V., Phillips, S. B. and Westerman, R. L. (1998). Effect of long-term N fertilisation on soil organic C and total N in continuous wheat under conventional tillage in Oklahoma. Soil and Tillage Research, 47, 323–330.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Redwood, I. I. (2010). Theoretical and Practical Ammonia Refrigeration. General Books LLC.Google Scholar
Reynolds, M., Foulkes, M. J., Slafer, G. A.et al. (2009). Raising yield potential in wheat. Journal of Experimental Botany, 60, 1899–1918.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Ross, R. B. (1988). Handbook of Metal Treatments and Testing, 2nd edition. Springer, New York.Google Scholar
Rudel, T. K., Schneider, L., Uriarte, M.et al. (2009). Agricultural intensification and changes in cultivated areas, 1970–2005. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 106, 20675–20680.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Sastri, V. S. (1998). Corrosion Inihibitors: Principles and Applications. J. Wiley, New York.Google Scholar
Schepers, J. S. and Raun, W. R. (2008). Nitrogen in Agricultural Systems. Chicago, IL.Google Scholar
Schils, R. L. M., Meer, H. G., Wouters, A. P., Geurink, J. H. and Sikkema, K. (1999). Nitrogen utilization from diluted and undiluted nitric acid treated cattle slurry following surface application to grassland. Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems, 53, 269–280.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schröder, J. J., Aarts, H. F. M., ten Berge, H. F. M., Keulen, H. and Neeteson, J. J. (2003). An evaluation of whole-farm nitrogen balances and related indices for efficient nitrogen use. European Journal of Agronomy 20, 33–44.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Schröder, J. J., Jansen, A. G. and Hilhorst, G. J. (2005). Long-term nitrogen supply from cattle slurry. Soil Use and Management, 21, 196–204.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sheriff, G. (2005). Efficient waste? Why farmers over-apply nutrients and the implications for policy design. Review of Agricultural Economics, 27, 542–557.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shewry, P. R. (2009). Improving the protein content and composition of cereal grain. Journal of Cereal Science, 46, 239–250.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Shiel, R. S., El Tilib, A. M. A. and Younger, A. (1999). The influence of fertilizer nitrogen, white clover content and environmental factors on the nitrate content of perennial ryegrass and ryegrass/white clover swards. Grass and Forage Science, 54, 275–285.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sidlauskas, G. and Bernotas, S. (2003). Some factors affecting seed yield of spring oilseed rape (Brassica napus L.)Agronomy Research, 1, 229–243.Google Scholar
Sieling, K. and Kage, H. (2008). The potential of semi-dwarf oilseed rape genotypes to reduce the risk of N leaching. Journal of Agricultural Science, 146, 77–84.Google Scholar
Smil, V. (1999). Nitrogen in crop production: an account of global flows. Global Biogeochemical Cycles, 13, 647–662.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Smil, V. (2000). Feeding the World: A Challenge for the Twenty-First Century. MIT Press, Cambridge, MA.Google Scholar
Smit, H. J., Metzger, M. J. and Ewert, F. (2008). Spatial distribution of grassland productivity and land use in Europe. Agricultural Systems, 98, 208–219.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sommer, S. G., Schjoerring, J. K. and Denmead, O. T. (2004). Ammonia emission from mineral fertilizers and fertilized crops. Advances in Agronomy, 82, 558–622.Google Scholar
Stoecker, W. (1998) Industrial Refrigeration Handbook, McGraw-Hill, New York.Google Scholar
Sutton, M. A., Howard, C. M., Erisman, J. W.et al. (2011). Assessing our nitrogen inheritance. In: The European Nitrogen Assessment, ed. Sutton, M. A., Howard, C. M., Erisman, J. W.et al. Cambridge University Press.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Sylvester-Bradley, R. and Kindred, D. R. (2009). Analysing nitrogen responses of cereals to prioritize routes to the improvement of nitrogen use efficiency. Journal of Experimental Botany, 60, 1939–1951.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Tatiya, R. R. (2005). Surface and Underground Excavations: Methods, Techniques and Equipment. Taylor and Francis, London.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
ten Berge, H. F. M. and Dijk, W. (2009). Management of Nitrogen inputs on farms within the EU regulatory framework. In: Proceedings 654, The International Fertilizer Society, York, UK.
Tilman, D., Cassman, K. G., Matson, P. A., Naylor, R. and Polasky, S. (2002). Agricultural sustainability and intensive production practices. Nature, 418, 671–677.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Treacy, M., Humphreys, J., McNamara, K., Browne, R. and Watson, C. J. (2008). Farm-gate nitrogen balances on intensive dairy farms in the south west of Ireland. Irish Journal of Agricultural and Food Research, 47, 105–117.Google Scholar
Turkington, R. (2009). Chemicals Used for Illegal Purposes: J. Wiley, New York.Google Scholar
Turner, D. A., Edis, R. B., Chen, D.et al. (2010). Determination and mitigation of ammonia loss from urea applied to winter wheat with N-(n-butyl) thiophosphorictriamide. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment, 137, 261–266.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
,UNFCCC (2008). United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change: Greenhouse Gas Inventory Data (online). http://unfccc.int
Vellinga, T.V. and André, G. (1999). Sixty years of Dutch nitrogen fertilizer experiments, an overview of the effects of soil type, fertilizer input, management and of developments in time. Netherlands Journal of Agricultural Science, 47, 215–241.Google Scholar
Vellinga, T. V., André, G., Schils, R. L. M. and Oenema, O. (2004). Operational nitrogen fertilizer management in dairy farming systems: identification of criteria and derivation of fertilizer application rates. Grass and Forage Science, 59, 364–377.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vellinga, T. V., André, G., Schils, R. L. M., Kraak, T. and Oenema, O. (2010). Accounting for residual effects of previously applied nitrogen fertilizer on intensively managed grasslands. Grass and Forage Science, 65, 58–75.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Velthof, G. L., Oudendag, D., Witzke, H. P.et al. (2009). Integrated assessment of nitrogen losses from agriculture in EU-27 using MITERRA-EUROPE. Journal of Environmental Quality, 38, 402–417.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Vérité, R. and Delaby, L. (2000). Relation between nutrition, performances and nitrogen excretion in dairy cows. Annales de Zootechnie, 49, 217–230.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Virtanen, H. and Nousiainen, J. (2005). Nitrogen and phosphorus balances on Finnish dairy farms. Agricultural and Food Science, 14, 166–180.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Vitousek, P. M., Naylor, R., Crews, T.et al. (2009). Nutrient imbalances in agricultural development. Science, 324, 1519–1520.CrossRefGoogle ScholarPubMed
Witzke, H. and Noleppa, S. (2010). EU Agricultural Production and Trade: Can More Efficiency Prevent Increasing “Land-Grabbing” Outside Of Europe? Report published by OPERA, Research Centre of Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore. Available at http://www.opera-indicators.eu/eng/home.html
Wang, X. T. and Below, F. E. (1996). Cytokinins in enhanced growth and tillering of wheat induced by mixed nitrogen source. Crop Science, 36, 121–126.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Watson, C. J., Akhonzada, N. A., Hamilton, J. T. G. and Matthews, D. I. (2008). Rate and mode of application of the urease inhibitor N-(n-butyl) thiophosphoric triamide on ammonia volatilization from surface-applied urea. Soil Use and Management, 24, 246–253.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Webb, J., Seeney, F. M., and Sylvester-Bradley, R. (1998). The response to fertilizer nitrogen of cereals grown on sandy soils. Journal of Agricultural Science, 130, 271–286.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Webb, J., Anthony, S. G., Brown, L.et al. (2005). The impact of increasing the length of the cattle grazing season on emissions of ammonia and nitrous oxide and on nitrate leaching in England and Wales. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment, 105, 307–321.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Witzke, H. P. and Oenema, O. (2007). Assessment of Most Promising Measures: Integrated Measures in Agriculture to Reduce Ammonia Emissions – Task 3. Report, Alterra – Wageningen University Research, The Netherlands.Google Scholar
Wohler, F. (2009). Handbook of Mineral Analysis. Bibliobazaar.Google Scholar
Wojciechowska, M. and Lomnicki, S. (1999). Nitrogen oxides removal by catalytic methods. Clean Technologies and Environmental Policy, 1, 237–247.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Xiccato, G., Schiavon, S., Gallo, L., Bailoni, L. and Bittante, G. (2005). Nitrogen excretion in dairy cow, beef and veal cattle, pig, and rabbit farms in Northern Italy. Italian Journal of Animal Science, 4, 103–111.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Yara, (2009). Yara Fertilizer Industry Handbook. www.yara.com
Zimmer, Y. (2008). Cash Crop Report 2008. vTI Braunschweig. Available at http://www.agribenchmark.org.

Accessibility standard: Unknown

Accessibility compliance for the PDF of this book is currently unknown and may be updated in the future.

Save book to Kindle

To save this book to your Kindle, first ensure no-reply@cambridge.org is added to your Approved Personal Document E-mail List under your Personal Document Settings on the Manage Your Content and Devices page of your Amazon account. Then enter the ‘name’ part of your Kindle email address below. Find out more about saving to your Kindle.

Note you can select to save to either the @free.kindle.com or @kindle.com variations. ‘@free.kindle.com’ emails are free but can only be saved to your device when it is connected to wi-fi. ‘@kindle.com’ emails can be delivered even when you are not connected to wi-fi, but note that service fees apply.

Find out more about the Kindle Personal Document Service.

Available formats
×

Save book to Dropbox

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Dropbox.

Available formats
×

Save book to Google Drive

To save content items to your account, please confirm that you agree to abide by our usage policies. If this is the first time you use this feature, you will be asked to authorise Cambridge Core to connect with your account. Find out more about saving content to Google Drive.

Available formats
×